FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

English
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for Advanced Secondary Schools

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Student’s Book

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Form Five

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Tanzania Institute of Education

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© Tanzania Institute of Education ONLINE USE ONLY
2022
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Published 2022

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ISBN: 978-9987-09-438-7

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Tanzania Institute of Education

P. O. Box 35094
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Dar es Salaam
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Mobile numbers: +255 735 041 168

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+255 735 041 170

Email: [email protected]
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Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. No part of this textbook may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, whether electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Tanzania
Institute of Education.

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 Table
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Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... vii

Preface .......................................................................................................................viii
Chapter One: Introduction to language.................................................................... 1
Concept of language.................................................................................................. 1
Key concepts in the definition of language ............................................................... 2
Characteristics of human language ........................................................................... 4

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Language and a language .......................................................................................... 8
Functions of language ............................................................................................... 8
Roles of language in society ................................................................................... 11

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Linguistic competence and performance ................................................................ 13

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Types of competence one needs .............................................................................. 14
Implications of linguistic competence and performance ........................................ 16
Factors affecting competence and performance ...................................................... 17
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Errors and mistakes ................................................................................................. 17
Reflection ................................................................................................................ 20
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Chapter Two: Contextualising the basic linguistic concepts ................................. 21
Speech community .................................................................................................. 21
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Monolingualism, bilingualism and multilingualism ............................................... 22

Official language ..................................................................................................... 22
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Standard language ................................................................................................... 22

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Language variation in society ................................................................................. 23

Causes of language variation .................................................................................. 25
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Dialect ..................................................................................................................... 26
Idiolect..................................................................................................................... 28
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Register ................................................................................................................... 28
Accent ..................................................................................................................... 28
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Slang........................................................................................................................ 29
Jargon ...................................................................................................................... 29
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International language ............................................................................................. 30

Foreign language ..................................................................................................... 30
Lingua franca .......................................................................................................... 30
Diglossia.................................................................................................................. 31
English and Kiswahili in Tanzania .......................................................................... 31
Status and role of English in the world ................................................................... 33
Status and role of English in Tanzania .................................................................... 34
Code-switching and code-mixing ........................................................................... 34
Reflection ................................................................................................................ 38

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 Chapter Three: Word formation FOR.............................................................................
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Concept of word formation ..................................................................................... 39
Morpheme ............................................................................................................... 39
Realisation of morpheme ........................................................................................ 42
Root, stem and base................................................................................................. 44
Word formation in English ...................................................................................... 45
Reflection ................................................................................................................ 51
Chapter Four: Using pronunciation and prosodic features correctly .................. 52
Spoken English........................................................................................................ 52
Pronunciation awareness ......................................................................................... 53

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Identification of consonant sounds and vowel sounds ............................................ 53
Understanding the vowel sounds ............................................................................ 60
Pronouncing English monophthongs ...................................................................... 62

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Pronouncing English diphthongs ............................................................................ 66

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Transcribing words .................................................................................................. 68
English syllables...................................................................................................... 69
Structure of a syllable.............................................................................................. 70
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Placing stresses on words ........................................................................................ 71
Stress placement in other types of words ................................................................ 72
Clues on stress placement in words ........................................................................ 73
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Word endings that do not shift stress positioning ................................................... 74
Intonation ................................................................................................................ 75
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Falling tone ( ) ........................................................................................................ 76

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Rising tone ( ) ......................................................................................................... 77

Falling-rising tone ( ) ............................................................................................ 78
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Rising-falling tone ( )............................................................................................ 78

Reflection ................................................................................................................ 80
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Chapter Five: Applying basic concepts of syntax .................................................. 81

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Syntax and language rules....................................................................................... 81

Combining words into phrases ................................................................................ 82
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Pre-modifiers .......................................................................................................... 84
Post-modifiers ......................................................................................................... 87
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Functions of noun phrases....................................................................................... 89

Basic concepts of syntax ......................................................................................... 89
Subject-verb agreement in sentences ...................................................................... 92
Talking about places, time and manner ................................................................... 95
Clauses and sentences ............................................................................................. 96
Analysing English sentences ................................................................................... 98
Categorising sentences in terms of structure........................................................... 99
Combining clauses with equal status .................................................................... 100

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 Combining clauses with different FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
status ............................................................... 100
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Using complex and compound sentences at the same time .................................. 102
Reflection .............................................................................................................. 104
Chapter Six: Developing listening skills ............................................................... 105
Listening and hearing ............................................................................................ 105
Principles of effective listening ............................................................................. 105
Purpose of listening ............................................................................................... 107
Attributes of a good listener .................................................................................. 108
Listening to get information from different sources ............................................. 108
Reflection .............................................................................................................. 113

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Chapter Seven: Speech making, presentation and engaging in discussion ....... 114
Speech-making ...................................................................................................... 114

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Things to consider in preparing and giving a speech ............................................ 115
Tactical skills/techniques for delivering a good speech ........................................ 116

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Telephone conversations ....................................................................................... 120
Panel discussions................................................................................................... 125
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Participating in a debate ........................................................................................ 131
Participating in live-television or radio-talk shows .............................................. 133
Public rally ............................................................................................................ 135
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Reflection .............................................................................................................. 139
Chapter Eight: Mastering reading skills .............................................................. 140
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Reading for general and specific information ....................................................... 140

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Developing reading techniques ............................................................................. 141

Skimming .............................................................................................................. 142
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Scanning ................................................................................................................ 142

Intensive reading ................................................................................................... 143
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Developing reading speed ..................................................................................... 144

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Inferring meaning from a context ......................................................................... 145

Obtaining detailed information, ideas and opinions from the text ........................ 147
Identifying the main conclusions in argumentative texts ...................................... 147
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Differences between opinions and facts ................................................................ 148

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Extending general and specialised vocabulary through reading ........................... 148

Using words with connotative and denotative meanings ...................................... 148
Defining words with connotative and denotative meanings ................................. 149
Using information sources to research a topic for presentation ............................ 149
Identifying appropriate questions for research ...................................................... 150
Collecting information from various sources........................................................ 150
Organising information for presentation ............................................................... 151
Citing sources of information using the APA style ............................................... 151
The APA reference style: general information ...................................................... 152

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 Citing sources using quoted and FORparaphrased
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Reflection .............................................................................................................. 155
Chapter Nine: Writing as an art ............................................................................ 156
Writing essays of different types ........................................................................... 156
Narrative essay ...................................................................................................... 158
Expository essays .................................................................................................. 161
Descriptive essays ................................................................................................. 163
Argumentative (persuasive) essay......................................................................... 165
Writing essays step-by-step ................................................................................... 165
Reflection .............................................................................................................. 170

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Chapter Ten: Note-taking and summary writing ................................................ 171
Taking notes from different sources ...................................................................... 171

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Note-taking techniques.......................................................................................... 172
Summary writing................................................................................................... 176

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Writing official and personal letters ...................................................................... 177
Writing memos ...................................................................................................... 181
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Writing autobiography and biography .................................................................. 182
Reflection .............................................................................................................. 186
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Chapter Eleven: Oral and written literature ....................................................... 187
Concept of literature.............................................................................................. 187
Types of literature ................................................................................................. 187
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Language and literature ......................................................................................... 195

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Elements of literature ............................................................................................ 198

Reflection .............................................................................................................. 204
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Chapter Twelve: Analysing literary works ........................................................... 205

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How to do a literary analysis................................................................................. 205

Doing a literary analysis of a selected work of art ................................................ 206
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Writing a short story .............................................................................................. 210

Reflection .............................................................................................................. 212
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Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 213

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 Acknowledgements
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The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the contributions
of all the organisations and individuals who participated in designing and developing
this textbook. In particular, TIE wishes to thank the University of Dar es Salaam
(UDSM), the University of Dodoma (UDOM), Sokoine University of Agriculture
(SUA), Dar es Salaam University College of Education (DUCE), The Open University
of Tanzania (OUT), St John’s University of Tanzania (SJUT), the State University of
Zanzibar (SUZA), Catholic University College of Mbeya (CUCoM), School Quality
Assurance (SQA) Department, teachers’ colleges and secondary schools. Besides, the

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following individuals are acknowledged:

Writers: Dr Moshi M. Kimizi (TIE), Dr Nicholaus Asheli (UDSM),

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Dr Eliakimu Sane (UDOM), Mr Emmanuel Ndulila (TIE) and
Mr Samuel Kisanga (TIE Retiree)

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Editors: Dr Kelvin Mathayo (UDSM), Dr Esther J. Masele (UDOM),
Dr Rodrick G. Ndomba (DUCE), Dr Julius Frank (OUT),
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Dr Abdulrahman Khalfan (SUZA) and Dr Elias M. Songoyi
(CUCoM)
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Designer: Mr Anton Asukile
Coordinators: Dr Moshi M. Kimizi (TIE) and Mr Emmanuel Ndulila (TIE)
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TIE also appreciates the participation of secondary school teachers and students in the
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trial phase of the manuscript. Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the Ministry
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of Education, Science and Technology for facilitating the writing and printing of this
textbook.
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Dr Aneth A. Komba
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Director General
Tanzania Institute of Education

vii Form Five

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 Preface
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This book, English for Advanced Secondary Schools, is written specifically for Form
Five students in the United Republic of Tanzania. It is written in accordance with the
2009 English Language Syllabus for Advanced Secondary Education Form V-VI,
issued by the then Ministry of Education and Vocational Training.

The book consists of twelve chapters, namely Introduction to language, Contextualising

the basic linguistic concepts, Word formation, Using pronunciation and prosodic features
correctly, Applying basic concepts of syntax, Developing listening skills, Making
speech presentations and engaging in different discussions, Mastering reading skills,

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Writing as an art, Note-taking and summary writing, Oral and written literature, and
Analysing literary works. Each chapter contains texts, activities and exercises. You are

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encouraged to do all the activities and exercises as well as other assignments provided
by your teacher. By doing so, it will enable you to develop the intended competencies.

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 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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One Introduction to language

Introduction
Human beings use language to communicate ideas, feelings and experiences.

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Language is also used for socio-economic, political, cultural, scientific and
technological development. Languages such as Kiswahili, English, Arabic and all
the languages of different ethnic groups in Tanzania are used for bringing about

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sustainable development in their speech communities. In this chapter, you will
learn the concepts of human language, characteristics, role and functions, as

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well as language competence and performance. You will also learn the difference
between language and a language, errors and mistakes. Besides, you will do various
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activities and answer questions to internalise your understanding and relate theories
to practice. The competencies developed from reading this chapter will enable you
to conceptualise language and differentiate it from other forms of communication.
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Concept of language
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The puzzle of the origin of human language becomes fascinating when we attempt to
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differentiate language from animal communication. By the way, animals do not have
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‘language’. Animals have ways of communicating that vary from one type of animal
to another. They commonly communicate through smell, signs and sounds. Although
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scholars have defined human language from different perspectives, they provide the
same meaning of human language. Some scholars define language as a system of
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human communication which consists of an unstructured arrangement of vocal sounds

(or their written representation) in larger units such as morphemes, words, sentences
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and utterances; while others define it as a system of arbitrary, conventionalised vocal,

written or gestural symbols that enable members of a given speech community to
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communicate. Yet, others define it as a system of conventional, spoken or written

symbols, by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and
participants in its culture, communicate. From these different definitions, we can derive
one definition of language, which views language as a system of arbitrary vocal (oral
or written) symbols through which members of a speech community interact with
each other and communicate values, knowledge, skills, ideas, feelings, attitudes and
experiences relevant to their culture.

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 Introduction to language

Activity 1.1 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. You have read various definitions of language. Now, write your own definition of
language.
2. What are the functions of language which emerge from the definitions you have
read? Write at least two functions.
Key concepts in the definition of language
The following are the key concepts in the definition of language: system, arbitrariness,
symbol, vocal, human/community/society, conventional and communication or
interaction.

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(a) System
Language is a system because speech sounds are systematically combined to form

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morphemes, words, phrases, clauses and sentences. For example, the word ‘cat’ is a
combination of three sounds /k/, /æ/ and /t/. If these sounds are not arranged well,

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they will bring out meaningless words. Therefore, language comprises several small
units, each of which performs a different function, but together they perform one main
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function. Knowledge of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics helps
us to know and observe the rules that make language systematic. If one element of
language is excluded, the entire system will collapse. For instance, a language cannot
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function without its sounds. Again, language cannot function without a well-defined
system of word formation processes (morphology).
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(b) Symbol
Language is a symbol because it has signs and words that stand for other things. For
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example, the word ‘table’ stands for a piece of furniture with a flat top supported by legs.
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In language, there is no direct relationship between a word and the object it represents.
Hence, a word qualifies as a symbol when it has no physical connection with the real
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object or the concept it represents.

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(c) Arbitrariness
Language is arbitrary because there is no inherent relationship between the sounds and
the referents (objects, ideas or concepts) they represent. English has words like book,
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class, spoon and goat. For instance, all four-legged animals are not necessarily called
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‘goats’ in English. The name ‘goat’ occurred by chance. If that were not the case, the
name ‘goat’ would be found in all languages. Owing to arbitrariness, languages can
have a different word for representing the same four-legged animal.

Consider the examples below.

English goat
Kiswahili mbuzi
Kiha impene

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 Introduction to language

Kibosho FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

mburu
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Sukuma mbuli
Kinga mene

However, some words show a close relationship with the objects or sounds to which
they refer. In the English language, such words are known as ‘onomatopoeic words’
and ‘ideophonic words’. On the one hand, onomatopoeic words refer to the words or
names that imitate the sounds of the objects they refer to. For example, the word ‘tick-
tock’ refers to the sound made by the clock in English, and ‘pikipiki’ refers to the sound
produced by motorcycles in Kiswahili. On the other hand, ideophonic words refer to
all words that depict sensory imagery like taste, visual effects, texture and smell. In

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Kiswahili, mweusi tii (pitch black) is an ideophonic word. However, onomatopoeic and
idiophonic words do not invalidate that human language is arbitrary. This is because

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such words are few in a language.

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(d) Vocal
Language is vocal since it is produced by unique speech organs found in humans. Such
organs enable us to systematically organise sounds. We use the vocal organs found in
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our bodies such as the mouth, nose and throat to produce speech sounds.

(e) Communication
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In principle, any language is fundamentally used for communication purposes. It is
used to exchange information or express thoughts and feelings. Hence, language plays
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a fundamental role in human development.

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(f) Society
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Language is used for communication purposes in every society. Human beings can
learn and use language for communication purposes. Animals cannot learn a language,
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but they can use a very limited number of signs of danger or cries for alert and calls.
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(g) Conventional
Language cannot be a property of a single person; instead, it belongs to a speech
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community. Language is conventional since it uses signs, symbols or words that the
people of a particular speech community have decided to use for communication. That
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is why speakers of a particular language understand each other, while those speaking
other languages cannot. For example, the sentence “We are going home now” is an
acceptable English sentence. Similarly, the phrase Umwami wachu “our chief” is an
acceptable Kiha phrase and the sentence Najile kaya “I am going home” is an acceptable
Sukuma sentence in their respective communities. Someone who does not belong to any
of these speech communities may not know the meaning of any of these constructions.

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 Introduction to language

Activity 1.2 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. Write answers to the following questions and present them to the class:
(a) Why is language defined as a system of arbitrary, conventionalised vocal,
written or gestural symbols?
(b) What are the other key ‘concepts’ included in the definition of language?
(c) Why is language said to be a system?
2. Using examples from Kiswahili, English or your mother tongue; describe (in
groups) the following attributes of language:
(a) arbitrariness
(b) conventional (social acceptance)

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(c) vocal/pronunciation
(d) symbols

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(e) human/community/society
(f) communication/interaction

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Characteristics of human language
Activity 1.3 SE
Read the following dialogue. Act it out with your fellow students and do the exercise
that follows.
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[It was noon when the bell rang, indicating that the English lesson was about to start.
Mr Moses, a Form Five English teacher, entered the classroom.]
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Teacher: Good afternoon, students.

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Students: Good afternoon, Sir.

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Teacher: [smiling] Take your seats, please. Class, can any one of you tell us
the meaning of language?
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Rachel: Sir…, Sir… [scratching her head while thinking] In my opinion,

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language is a means of communication.

Teacher: Good. Any other opinions? Yes, Aisha …
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Aisha: [confidently], Rachel has put it well, Sir. Language is a means of

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communication. However, it could also be defined as a system of

sounds used for communication and social interaction. For the
sounds to be used as a means of communication, they must be
mutually accepted by members of the speech community concerned.
Teacher Well done, Aisha. Now, what are the characteristics of human
language? [pointing at Anna] Anna, can you please answer the
question?

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 Introduction to language

Anna: FORcharacteristics
Yes, Sir. The ONLINE USE ONLYof language include arbitrariness,
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displacement, productivity, cultural transmission, discreteness,
duality, reflectiveness and interchangeability.
Teacher: Well done, Anna. What are the other characteristics of language,
in addition to those mentioned by Anna? Any other characteristics,
Sophia?
Sophia: Thank you, Sir. Specialisation and structural dependence are also
part of the characteristics of language.
Aisha: [interrupting] That’s right. Human beings have specialised speech

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organs. Each speech organ produces certain speech sounds.
Teacher: Very good, Sophia and Aisha! What about the second characteristic
– structural dependence? [pointing at Rachel]

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Rachel: You know, Sir, I’m not sure about it; however, many human languages

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have a structurally complex system, which is rule-governed. Words
are arranged in accordance with the rules governing the structure of

Teacher:
a given language. SE
Good. We need to bear in mind that every language depends on its
grammatical and structural rules.
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Exercise
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1. Pair up with your fellow student and discuss the following questions, and
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then write answers in your exercise books.

(a) According to the dialogue, what does ‘language’ mean?
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(b) With vivid examples from either Kiswahili or English, briefly explain
each characteristic of language.
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(c) Why do you think the animal mode of communication is not

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language?

2. In groups, discuss the following concepts in relation to the characteristics

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of human language and write answers in your exercise books.

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(a) arbitrariness
(b) displacement
(c) productivity
(d) cultural transmission
(e) discreteness
(f) duality
(g) reflectiveness
(h) interchangeability

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 Introduction to language

As you have learned from theFOR ONLINEabove,

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language is different from animal
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communication. The characteristics that set human language apart from animal
communication include duality, patterning, displacement, specialisation, arbitrariness,
interchangeability or reciprocity, discreteness and cultural transmission described in
the following section.
Duality: Every language has a set of basic sounds which are called phonemes. These
phonemes are generally meaningless in isolation. Imagine a person uttering the basic
sounds [ˈʊ.ə.a] or [ˈz.n.e.t.p] in English and [a.a.m.m] or [m.o.j.m.a.b] in Kiswahili.
Do you think it would be possible for this person to convey any meaning? These basic
sounds or phonemes become meaningful only when they combine with each other

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in accordance with the rules of a particular language, as in ‘hour’ [ˈaʊə] or ‘peasant’
[ˈpeznt] in English and ‘mama’ (mother) [mama] or ‘mjomba’(uncle) [mjomba] in
Kiswahili. So we can say that human language is organized into two levels or layers,

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that is, a layer of individual sounds which combine with each other to form the second

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layer of bigger units like words. This kind of organization into two layers is called
duality.
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Patterning: Human language has well defined internal patterns. There are firm
restrictions on which elements (sounds, words, etc.) can occur together, and in which
order. For example, take the sounds ‘o’, ‘p’, ‘t’, and ‘s’ in English. These sounds can be
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arranged in the following seven ways only: ‘spot’, ‘stop’, ‘opts’, ‘pot’, ‘pots’, ‘top’ and
‘tops’. Other possibilities like ‘tsop’, ‘ptos’, ‘opst’, are not possible because the rules
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of English do not allow these.

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Similar kinds of patterns are followed when words are combined to form sentences,
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and similar kinds of internal organisation occur at the sentence level. Human beings
can automatically recognize the patterned nature of language and manipulate structured
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chunks of language.
For example:
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(a) That beautiful woman gave me flowers.

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(b) That woman gave me flowers.

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(c) She gave me flowers.

Human beings can understand that these sentences are structurally equivalent. Animals
do not use structure-dependent operations.
Displacement: Most animals can communicate about things in the immediate
environment only. An animal utters its cry of danger only when there is danger in the
proximity. It cannot give information about a peril which is removed in time and place.
Human languages, however, can communicate about things that are absent as easily as
about things that are present. This property of human language is called displacement.

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 Introduction to language

However, it has been proposedFOR thatONLINE USE ONLY

bee communication does have the property of
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displacement. For instance, when a worker bee finds a source of nectar, and returns to
the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the
location of this nectar. This ability of the bee to indicate a location at some distance
must indicate that bee communication has some degree of displacement as a feature.
Nevertheless, the crucial factor, in this case, is that of degree. Bee communication
has displacement in an extremely limited form. Human language is much more
comprehensive where this property is concerned. Human beings can talk of events
remote in space or time from the speaker or hearer.

Specialisation: Human language has specialized terms for some expressions. For

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example, a male head of a secondary school is called headmaster while a female is
called headmistress, also there are special terms for adult and young animals; e.g. goat-

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kid, cat-kitten, cow-calf etc. There are special terms related to movements depending
on their nature.

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Arbitrariness: In animal communication, there is frequently a connection between the
signals and the messages sent. For instance, an animal that wishes to warn an opponent
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may simulate an attacking attitude. A cat, for example, will arch its back, spit and
appear ready to pounce. In human language, the reverse is true, and there is no ‘natural’
link between a linguistic form and its meaning. That is, the symbols used are arbitrary.
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For example, there is no connection between the word DOG and the four legged canine
it symbolizes: it can equally be called kutta (Hindi), chien (French), or hund (German).
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Interchangeability or reciprocity: Language allows communicators to exchange

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positions. At one point the communicator is the speaker, but at the other she becomes
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the listener. When one person is speaking the other is listening and when the listener
starts responding the speaker becomes the listener. This property of language is called
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interchangeability or reciprocity.
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Discreteness: The sounds of human language are meaningfully distinct. For instance,
the words man and ban differ from each other in only one sound. As you can see, the
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difference in only one sound is sufficient enough to cause a difference in meaning. So

we can identify sounds like /d/, /p/, /k/, /g/ and /i/ which is not the case with animal
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communication. This discreteness helps us to distinguish words like, pig and big, pack
and back, come and some, go and so.

Cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted from one generation to the

next. Also human language acts as a medium of transmitting the culture of a particular
society from one generation to another. The transmission is done as young ones learn
the language.

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 Introduction to language

Language and a language FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Language and a language are different. As we saw earlier, the term “language” refers to
the universal characteristic features of all human languages. On the contrary, a language
refers to a particular or specific form of speech used by a given speech community.
The characteristic features of human language (language) as described in the previous
section include displacement, duality, arbitrariness and interchangeability, whereas the
following are the features of a language:
(a) It is used to express the culture of a particular speech community.
(b) It changes and develops with time; thus, it is dynamic.

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(c) It is the property of a particular speech community, such as Chigogo for the
Gogo and Kizaramo for the Zaramo.
(d) It may have its own writing system, which can be different from the writing

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systems of other languages.

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(e) It has its own phonology, which is different from the phonologies of other
languages.
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Generally, language does not belong to a particular speech community, while a language
does. Language is not connected to the culture of a particular social group, while a
language is. Finally, language is static, while a language is dynamic (it changes over
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time and space).
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Activity 1.4
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In groups, discuss the following:

1. Both people and animals communicate. Discuss the difference between their modes
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of communication.
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2. Using vivid examples, describe the difference between language and a language.
3. “A human language develops, grows and finally dies.” Briefly elaborate this
O

assertion with examples.

4. Drawing examples from either Kiswahili or English, identify the specific changes
R

that make a language dynamic.

FO

Functions of language
Activity 1.5
1. Pair up with your fellow student and answer the following questions orally:
(a) What is the main function of language?
(b) Why do we link language with education?
(c) In what situations do we need language in our daily lives?

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 Introduction to language

FOR
2. Read the following discussion ONLINE Act
carefully. USEitONLY
out with your fellow students and do
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the exercise that follows.
Teacher: Class, last time we discussed the characteristics of language exhaustively.
Today, let’s discuss the functions of language in society. [pointing at Aziz]
Can you tell us the functions of language, Aziz?
Aziz: Yes, Sir. I’ll mention only one function. Language facilitates communication.
Teacher: Good. [pointing at Deo] Any other functions, Deo?
Deo: As Aziz said, the basic function of language is to facilitate communication.
However, this answer is general, since language performs several specific

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roles or functions.
Teacher: All right! But what are the specific functions of language?

N
Kalekwa: [pointing at Deo]. Of course, Deo is right. Language performs certain specific

O
functions. These functions are expressive, directive, phatic, performative,
poetic, metalinguistic, emotive, referential, instrumental, persuasive and
recording.
SE
Teacher: You’re right, Kalekwa! Can someone else explain briefly the functions
Kalekwa has mentioned? [pointing at Sophia]
U
Sophia: When one uses a language to express feelings, emotions and attitudes, that
usage is an expressive function of language.
E

Teacher: That’s right! Who else can explain the directive, phatic and performative
N

functions of language?
Cosmas: [very confidently] Sir, with respect to the directive function, language is used
LI

to cause, influence or prevent certain actions, behaviour or attitudes of other

N

people. The directive function is also known as the instrumental or imperative

function. Examples include “Drink!”, “Go away!” and “A cup of coffee,
O

please!” With respect to the phatic function, language is used to maintain

good social relationships or rapport. This is also known as the interactional
R

function. It is when one uses a language to establish communication or

start conversation. Examples include common expressions like “Hello!”,
FO

“How do you do?”, “It’s nice to meet you!”, “Are you with me?” and
“Do you know what I mean?” The performative function is also known
as the declarative function. In this regard, language is used to change the
status of the addressee. Performative language includes speech acts such
as promising, swearing, betting and performing a marriage ceremony. For
example, “I pronounce you husband and wife.”
Teacher: Excellent! Can someone else explain the poetic, metalinguistic and emotive
functions of language in a nutshell?

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FORSir…
Ramadhani: I’m not very certain, ONLINE
but USE ONLY
I’ll try. With regard to the poetic function,
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also known as the aesthetic function, language is used to communicate
messages creatively (to arouse certain feelings and emotions). It is when
one uses a language for aesthetic purpose. This means that the centre of the
poetic function is the form of the message presented that gives it greater
significance. An example of this is “She is like the morning sun; she has
brought light into my life.” With the poetic function, the greatest attention
is paid to discursive forms and different rhetorical or literary figures that are
applied with special emphasis and care. With regard to the metalinguistic
function (reflexive function), language is used to talk about language itself;
that is, a person may study a particular language using the language which

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he/she speaks. It pays attention to the code itself to clarify it or negotiate it.
Emotive function, language is used to evoke strong feelings and emotions.

N
It is best exemplified by interjections and other sound changes that do not
alter the denotative meaning of an utterance but add information about the

O
speaker’s internal state. For example, “Wow, what a perfomance!”
Teacher: Wonderful! Cosmas, can you please talk about the three remaining functions
SE
of language; the referential, instrumental and persuasive functions?
Cosmas: Yes, Sir. The referential function refers to the use of language to express
U
factual information. It is also known as the informative or representational
function. The referential function is a denotative and a cognitive function.
This function is also called the ideational function, that is, it is context-
E

bound. A example of this is “The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.”
N

Regarding the instrumental function, it involves using language to get things

done or to present certain actions or events. Examples include “Clean the
LI

blackboard!” and “Sweep the floor!”

N

Sophia: [interrupting] Sir, Cosmas is right, but let me explain the persuasive function.
The persuasive function of human language is realised when language is
O

used to persuade or convince someone to do something. Examples include

“Vote for good leaders, they will help Tanzania make progress!” and “Buy
R

this phone; it is cheap, durable and simple to use!”

FO

Teacher: Well done, class! We’ve had a wonderful discussion. All the ideas
and opinions expressed during our discussion are very important for
understanding language, with respect to its characteristics and functions. In
the next section you will learn the role of language in society.

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Activity 1.6 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. Summarise and make an oral presentation of the main points discussed in the
dialogue.
2. Write an essay on the basic functions of language.
3. Drawing examples from your mother tongue, mention other functions of language,
apart from those mentioned in the discussion. Explain each of them briefly.
4. Given below are sentences expressing one of the functions of language. Indicate the
appropriate function against each.
(a) It looks like it may rain, doesn’t it?

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(b) Don’t touch my papers.
(c) Tanzania has a long tradition of celebrating independence day.

N
(d) The picture looks so pretty!
(e) The place looked neat and clean.

O
Roles of language in society
Activity 1.7 SE
Pair up with your fellow student and discuss the following questions:
U
1. What do you understand by ‘the role of language’ in society?
2. What is the role of language in your society?
E

Language is very important in our lives. It is a medium of communication. At school,

N

language is used as a medium of instruction and interaction among students and between
LI

students and teachers. The role fulfilled by language is determined by the political and
socio-economic activities done in a given community. The following are the roles of
N

language in a particular society:

O

(a) Language as a medium of communication

Language is a medium by which information is shared among human beings. Language
enables us to communicate by sending and receiving different kinds of information.
R

Thus, language facilitates information sharing. Journalists and radio or TV presenters

FO

use language to communicate with society through mass media. Individual people use
language to write letters, emails and cards, and to engage in greetings and telephone
conversations. Literary artists use language to write literary works so as to convey
messages to their societies.

(b) Language as a factor for social identity

Language plays a significant role in identifying people of the same ethnicity, nation or
region. For example, although most Tanzanians speak Kiswahili, using ethnic languages
in public places such as markets, bus stations or social gatherings can make people of

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 Introduction to language

the same ethnicity identify eachFOR ONLINE

other. USEidentify
One can ONLY the ethinicity of certain users
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based on their language. For example, one can identify speakers of Kisukuma, Kikurya
or Kihaya as belonging to a certain ethnic group based on their choice of words and
pronunciation.

(c) Language as a preserver of social history

Language preserves a society’s history, customs and traditions. It expresses the social,
political and economic evolution of the society. For example, Kiswahili played such a
role during the struggle against colonial rule in certain East African countries, including
Tanzania. Through language, people preserve their community’s history, customs and
traditions, memory, unique modes of thinking, meaning and expression.

LY
(d) Language as a factor for social development

N
Language is used to educate and guide people as well as increase their participation
in social, political and economic activities. It is also used to interpret modern science,

O
technological instruments and findings. Therefore, language facilitates the acquisition
and dissemination of modern technology.

(e) Language as a factor for national identity

SE
Through language, people can identify one’s nationality. If you use Kiswahili in a
U
foreign country or find someone speaking in Kiswahili there, you are likely to assume
the person is from Tanzania. This identification role of language also helps to isolate
non-native speakers from the native ones by paying attention to their accents and
E

vocabulary choice.
N

(f) Language as a unifying/dividing factor

LI

Language can unify or divide people, depending on the purpose of the language user
N

and the diction. Through a proper or improper choice of words, language users can
enhance peace and unity where people are divided, and the opposite is also possible.
O

Think of how the late Mwalimu Nyerere, the first President of the United Republic
of Tanzania, used Kiswahili to bring together the people of Tanzania with different
R

ethnic backgrounds. He also used Kiswahili in the struggle for the independence of his
country. Furthermore, in some cases, some people may use language to discriminate
FO

against people from other linguistic groups.

(g) Language as a reflection of culture
There is a close relationship between language and culture. A particular language is
always associated with a specific group of people. When one learns a language, for
instance, he is also learning the culture of the people who use that language. Some
cultural items cannot even be translated into other languages. Examples of culture-
specific items are words like ugali, mtori, urojo, jando and unyago. These refer to
culturally specific foods and practices; thus, they cannot have exact translations in other

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 Introduction to language

languages. Likewise, what are FOR ONLINE USE

the Kiswahili ONLY
translations of pizza and Halloween? It
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also reflects the changes in culture. As such, you will realise that language and culture
are inseparable.

Exercise
1. Analyse the roles of language in society.
2. What are the roles of Kiswahili in Tanzania?
3. Which are the current roles of English in Tanzania?

LY
Linguistic competence and performance
Activity 1.8

N
1. Before looking at the concepts of competence and performance in relation to human

O
languages, in pairs, answer the following questions orally:
(a) What do you understand by the terms ‘competence’ and ‘performance’ in
language? SE
(b) How is competence related to performance in language learning?
(c) Is there any difference between ‘speaking a language’ and ‘learning a language?
U
2. In groups, read carefully the following text on linguistic competence and
E

performance. Then discuss and do the exercise that follows.

An individual’s knowledge of a particular language and the ability to use the language
N

bring us to the important concepts of linguistic competence and performance.

LI

Linguistic competence refers to the innate linguistic knowledge that allows a person
to match sounds and meanings. It is someone’s knowledge of the language he/she
N

speaks. Competence includes someone’s ability to construct and understand sentences,

including even the sentences he or she has never heard before.
O

Furthermore, competence includes the knowledge to recognise grammatical and non-

grammatical sentences in a particular language and the ability to identify ambiguous and
R

marked sentences. It also includes an individual’s knowledge of the grammatical rules

FO

of a given language. A person who is competent in the English language, for instance,
can tell whether certain English sentences, spoken or written, are grammatically correct
or not.
Linguistic performance, on the other hand, is an individual’s actual use of language
in concrete situations. This is what someone produces in speech or writing. It should
be noted that performance is only a partial reflection of competence. Someone may
know the rules of a language, that means, he/she has the knowledge of the language
(competence) but may fail to apply them spontaneously in speech (performance). In

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 Introduction to language

other words, a person may haveFOR ONLINE

the ability USE ONLY
to produce an unlimited number of sentences
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(competence) but may fail to use it effectively in real-life communication (performance).
Actual language use in real situations and contexts reflects the speaker’s performance;
and knowledge of the system rules of language reflects one’s competence. Finally, it is
worth emphasising that not every linguistically competent person can perform well in
real-life communication. Likewise, not every person who can perform well in speech
or writing knows all the grammatical rules and norms of a given language.
Therefore, studying competence and performance for the language learner is essential
for various reasons. Both competence and performance are useful for understanding the
level of language mastery. It helps the language learner to seek appropriate tasks that

LY
enhance competence and performance. A language teacher can determine the learner’s
ability in the language (performance) and can, therefore, know the areas that need further
attention. Moreover, by understanding the concepts of competence and performance,

N
the learner will also understand that, besides knowing the language, using it effectively

O
and appropriately is important to meaningful and effective communication.

Exercise SE
1. With relevant examples, evaluate the assertion that “one’s explicit
knowledge of a language is a perfect reflection of his or her performance.”
U
2. Summarise the passage you have read in one paragraph.
E
N

Activity 1.9
(a) In groups, discuss the terms “competence” and “performance” in relation to
LI

language.
(b) Outline the strengths and weaknesses of competence and performance in
N

relation to language learning.

O

(c) Explain the significance of competence and performance in language

learning.
R

Types of competencies one needs

FO

Linguistic competence and performance requires a speaker to possess some knowledge

of a language, critical thinking and metacognitive skills, as well as understanding and
applying cultural nuances, beliefs and practices in context. Below is a description of
competencies that one needs in order to use language accurately and appropriately in
its oral and written forms in a variety of settings.
(a) Phonological competence
Phonological competence refers to the knowledge of the speech sounds of a language.
This implies that speakers of a given language can recognise the words found in their
language by simply listening to them. A speaker of English can determine whether a

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 Introduction to language

FOR ONLINE
word belongs to English or to another USE
language ONLY
only by listening to it. You are required,
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as a learner of English, to be familiar with all English speech sounds to be able to
recognise words.

(b) Syntactic competence

Syntactic competence refers to the knowledge that enables someone to know the
rules governing word order to form meaningful phrases, clauses and sentences. For
example, a speaker of English knows that “I ate a bread” is not a grammatically correct
sentence. It is the language learner’s task to be familiar with the syntactic rules of
English that govern the construction of sentences and utterances to be able to construct
grammatically correct sentences and utterances.

LY
(c) Semantic competence
Semantic competence refers to the knowledge of the meanings of words, phrases and

N
sentences. For instance, speakers know the relationship between the word “dog” and the

O
concept represented by this word, although there is no natural connection between the
two. That is why different languages have different words. For example, in Kiswahili,
the concept is represented by the word “mbwa.” It is the language learner’s task to
SE
learn to be able to determine the meaning of particular strings of words. The learner
of English will have to acquire this competence to be able to use English proficiently.
U
(d) Lexical competence
Lexical competence refers to the knowledge that enables someone to recognise
E

the words found in their language. For instance, speakers can choose from a quite
extensive variety of nouns when constructing a sentence. However, they know that, in
N

a construction such as “The _____ died in a road accident”, only an animate being may
LI

be placed in the gap because only living things “die” and only animate living things
may die in a road accident. However, names referring to inanimate or non-existing
N

things could fill the gap to represent abstract ideas or to express irony or humour.
O

(e) Morphological competence

Morphological competence is the knowledge that enables people to know the internal
R

structure of words and the rules of arranging morphemes to form words. Usually,
speakers know that, in general, to form a plural noun, they need to add an “s” to the end
FO

of the word. For instance, the word “book” can be turned into “books.” The English
language learner will have to be able to form new words based on morphological
principles and rules.

(f) Communicative competence

Communicative competence involves knowing the codes of a language and how
appropriately to use them in a given situation. This broad term involves the structural
features of a language as well as the social, pragmatic and contextual characteristics
that are essential in comprehending verbal messages. Communicative competence

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 Introduction to language

also includes the knowledge ofFOR ONLINE

grammar, USE ONLYthe rules of speaking as well as
vocabulary,
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communicating according to the topic and speech events. A language learner is required
to have comprehensive knowledge and appropriate application of the language in
specific contexts. This knowledge helps the learner to know what to communicate and,
more importantly, how, when, and where to communicate something.
(g) Sociolinguistic competence
Sociolinguistic competence refers to speakers’ ability to produce sentences in the
right situations or events. Speakers usually know when, where, to whom and how
to say things. Sociolinguistic competence for a language learner enables him/her to
demonstrate mastery of a language. It does not matter how well a language learner

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knows the grammar of a language’s, if he/she does not know how it must be used for
succesful communication or how people use it in their native environment.

N
Implications of lingusistic competence and performance
Lingustic competence and performance involve “knowing” and “doing” respectively.

O
Many language teachers have been focusing more on teaching learners about
the “knowing” (competence) part of language learning rather than using it in a
SE
communicative environment (performance). However, the implications of linguistic
competence and performance in language learning include the following:
(a) Fluency: This is the first implication of linguistic competence and performanc. A
U
speaker who knows the language rules (competence) is likely to use the language
fluently.
E

(b) Confidence: Since competence includes the speaker’s ability to internalise the
N

system of rules of a particular language, and performance exposes him or her to

more practice. It is likely that the speaker who has mastered both competence
LI

and performance will always speak with much confidence in various settings.
Their confidence will come from their mastery of the grammatical rules of the
N

language.
O

(c) Proficiency: Both fluency and confidence make the speaker of the language
conversant and proficient in both receptive and productive skills, namely listening,
R

speaking, reading and writing.

FO

(d) Flexibility: A speaker becomes highly flexible in encoding and decoding

information and in skimming and scanning information from various texts.
(e) Social and cultural stability: This is the implication grounded, to a great extent, in
linguistic competence. Linguistic competence comprises structural/grammatical
rules and the socio-cultural knowledge which are required to comprehend verbal
interactions. The user of a language who is competent will, therefore, stand
positive and remain stable and protective of his/her social and cultural norms,
at the same time allow for the development and evolution of culture. Remember
that a language is a tool for socio-economic and cultural expression.

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 Introduction to language

Activity 1.10 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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With reference to the text on the implications of competence and performance you have
just read, do the following:
(a) In groups, discuss critically the implications of linguistic competence and
performance.
(b) “Understanding competence and performance helps individuals to be confident
in using a particular language.” Using vivid examples from either Kiswahili or
English, substantiate this contention.
Factors affecting competence and performance

LY
Certain factors affect the competence and performance of a language user. These are
listed below.
(a) fear

N
(b) sickness

O
(c) memory lapse
(d) distraction
(e) fatigue
(f) excitement
(g) slip of the tongue
SE
U
Activity 1.11
In groups, discuss how the factors listed above affect the learner’s linguistic competence
E

and performance.
N

Errors and mistakes

LI

Language learning includes learning both what is grammatically correct and what is
socially appropriate. When a native speaker makes a mistake, he/she soon realises it
N

and makes suitable amendments for it, while a language learner may sometimes not
O

even be aware that he/she has made a mistake, or when made aware of the mistake, he/
she may not know how to make correction for it. A simple test to determine whether a
given fault is an error or a mistake is when on reading or hearing a sentence you react
R

by saying “This is not how it is said.” By saying that, you are referring to a mistake - a
FO

usage or form that is socially inappropriate and unacceptable.

(a) Errors
An error is defined as a violation of the rules of a language due to someone’s lack of
proper knowledge of the language. It occurs consistently and is not recognised by the
learner. Errors cannot be self-corrected because the learner does not know or recognise
the problem. Normally, errors are made by children or a learner of a particular language
who has not yet mastered it. For example, if someone repeatedly says “he go” instead
of “he goes” or “she talked to his husband on the phone” instead of “she talked to her

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 Introduction to language

husband on the phone”, it is an FOR ONLINE

obvious USE ONLY
indication that the learner has not learned the
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correct grammatical forms and the underlying grammatical rules of English.
(b) Mistakes
A mistake occurs when someone fails to utilise the known system correctly. In other
words, a native speaker or an advanced speaker of a particular language can produce
sentences that are grammatically incorrect owing to slips of the tongue and random
ungrammatical formation. Mistakes are self-corrected. Forms which are otherwise
grammatically correct may be socially inappropriate and unacceptable. Learning
a language means learning to use that language in social contexts. If a learner, for
example, while writing a composition, spells the word ‘deceive’ and ‘decieve’ or the

LY
word ‘husband’ as ‘husbend’ the first such occurrence will have to be treated as a
lapse or a slip of a pen. But if the same thing is repeated in the same or subsequent
composition by the same learner, it would have to be treated as an error representing an

N
incorrect or faulty learning of the spelling system of English.

O
Activity 1.12
With reference to the text in Activity 1.9, attempt the following questions and write a
summary of your discussion. SE
(a) In what ways does someone demonstrate success in language performance?
U
(b) It is common to hear Tanzanians say, ‘I can hear and understand everything
you say in English, but I am comfortable responding in Kiswahili.’ How will
you describe someone who says that, based on linguistic competence and
E

performance?
N

(c) With relevant examples, evaluate the assumption that linguistic competence is
realised through linguistic performance.
LI

(d) Explain briefly the distinguishing characteristics of competence and

N

performance.
(e) In everyday communication, is competence similar to proficiency? Explain.
O

(f) “Someone who is competent in a language is always a fluent speaker, and vice
versa.” What are your views on this argument?
R

(g) What is the difference between errors and mistakes?

FO

(h) How do errors and mistakes relate to one’s competence and performance in the
language?
Generally, the knowledge of language as a discipline of linguistics can be categorised
into phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics.
Although these levels can be treated separately, the division is not something people
are usually aware of when speaking. However, categorising language into levels helps
the language learner to understand that phonological rules are quite separate from
syntactic rules, despite the interface that exists between the two levels. The following
figure summarises the aforementioned levels.
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 Introduction to language

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Levels of language

Phonetics,
Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics
phonology

Speech sounds, Words and word Phrases, clauses Meanings of

and sentences Language use
sound systems forms various kinds

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Figure 1.1: Levels of language

N
Activity 1.13

O
1. Language is a major means of communication among human beings. Thus, it
plays a very important role in society. In groups, critically discuss the importance
SE
of language in society. The following hints are given as the key points for your
discussion:
(a) a unifying or dividing factor
U
(b) a cultural and national identity
(c) cultural and physical realities
E

(d) a social stratification factor

N

(e) a social development factor

LI

(f) a tool of communication

2. Unlike human languages, most animals use bodily signals, different sounds, and
N

smells to communicate with others. Complete the following sentences (a–e) showing
O

how animals express themselves using the words provided in the box. First, attempt
them individually; then, present your answers to the class.
R

press, dance, communicate, touch, interweave

FO

(a) Bees …………. when they find nectar.

(b) Chimpanzees …………their hands when they greet each other.
(c) Elephants …………. their trunks to show affection.
(d) Giraffes …………their necks together when they are attracted to each other.
(e) Birds and whales use songs to …………………….

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 Introduction to language

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Reflection
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1. What are the key features of language you have learned from this chapter?
2. It is argued in this chapter that animals do not have language. What do you
think about the means of communication used by animals like parrots?
3. In what way is language a double-edged sword, that is, beneficial and
detrimental?
4. Can you now define language, basic linguistic concepts and describe the
characteristics, functions and role of human language?

LY
5. Can you define and distinguish the terms linguistic ‘competence’ and
‘performance’?

N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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 Contextualising the basic linguistic concepts

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Chapter DO NOT DUPLICATE

Two
Contextualising the basic
linguistic concepts
Introduction

Various concepts in the study of human languages can help you understand the nature

LY
and use of language. In this chapter, you will learn the basic linguistic concepts,
including speech community, monolingualism, bilingualism and multilingualism,
official language, standard language, register, accent, dialect, slang, jargon,

N
international language, foreign language, lingua franca and diglossia. You will also
learn the status and role of English in the world and Tanzania in particular. You will

O
learn, as well, the concept of code-switching and code-mixing and contextualise
these concepts by doing various activities to internalise your understanding. The
SE
competencies gained from reading this chapter will enable you to use the basic
concepts and do linguistic analyses in various contexts and situations.
U
Speech community
E

A speech community refers to the members of a social group who share a particular
N

language. They belong to the same culture, speak the same dialect and can easily be
distinguished from members of another speech community. For example, speakers of
LI

Kiswahili in Tanzania and Kenya belong to the Kiswahili speech community. There are
about 150 speech communities in Tanzania. A few of these communities include Kiha,
N

Kisukuma, Kibosho, Kinyakyusa, Kimakua and Kimalaba.

O

A speech community can be large or small – although linguists do not agree on how a
speech community is defined. Some linguists agree that a shared language like English,
R

which is spoken throughout the world, is a speech community. However, other linguists
FO

say that a common language is too vague to be considered a true speech community
because there are distinct varieties of English in the world, with different rules. There
are those who think that a speech community should be more narrowly defined based
on characteristics such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and the way of speaking.
The concept of a speech community does not simply focus on groups that speak the
same language; it also considers that language represents, embodies, constructs and
constitutes meaningful participation in the society and culture. It also assumes that a
language community is a mutually intelligible, symbolic and ideological community
system.

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 Contextualising the basic linguistic concepts

Activity 2.1 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Pair up with your fellow student and discuss the following:
(a) What is your mother tongue? How are identity and mother tongue connected?
(b) The languages spoken in Tanzania.
(c) What is the relationship between language and culture?
(d) Speech community.

Monolingualism, bilingualism and multilingualism

Monolingualism is the ability to use only one language proficiently. A monolingual

LY
person is one who has the ability to use only one language. Bilingualism refers to
someone’s ability to use two languages. A person who can use two languages is called
a bilingual. Bilinguals get the languages they speak either simultaneously as they grow

N
up or sequentially, that is, learning the second language after acquiring the first language.

O
In bilingualism, the level of proficiency varies. Bilinguals change their languages with
the influence of the context, purpose and topic.

SE
Multilingualism means using more than two languages. A multilingual is a person who
can use more than two languages. Many Tanzanians are multilingual because they
grow up speaking their mother tongues, then they learn Kiswahili, which is the national
U
language, and those who proceed with formal education learn English. Someone who
speaks many languages is also known as a polyglot.
E

Exercise
N

In groups, discuss the benefits of being a multilingual in the Tanzanian context.

LI
N

Official language
This is the language selected by the government as a means of communication in all
O

official matters and public places such as government offices, schools, hospitals, courts
of law and parliament. An official language must be standard. For example, Kiswahili
R

and English are the two official languages in Tanzania.

FO

Activity 2.2
A certain high school in Tanzania has put a notice at the entrance which reads, “SPEAK
ENGLISH.” At the office of the head of the school, there is another notice that reads,
“NO ENGLISH NO SERVICE.” What is your opinion about the two notices?
Standard language
This is a variety that has undergone substantial codification of its grammar and usage.
It is more socially favoured and accepted in a wide range of communicative domains. It
is used widely in mass media and its grammar is taught in schools. For example, British

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FOR ONLINE
English (BrE) and American English USEvarieties
(AmE) are ONLY of standard English. Standard
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Kiswahili is based on the Kiunguja dialect.

Activity 2.3
In groups, discuss the following questions and make presentations in class.
(a) How many standard varieties of English do we have?
(b) How many standard varieties of Kiswahili do we have?
(c) What variety of standard English do we use in Tanzania?
(d) As a student, what problems do you face while using standard English?
(e) Briefly describe the stages involved in language standardisation.

LY
Language variation in society
Activity 2.4

N
Answer the following questions in pairs:

O
(a) What do you understand by the term ‘language variation’?
(b) Why do variations exist in one language?
(c) What are the factors that lead to language variation?
SE
(d) A language develops, grows but may ultimately die. What are the factors that may
cause language death?
U
Activity 2.5
In groups, read the text below and do the exercise that follows.
E

A language refers to a specific form (system) of speech which is mutually understood

N

by members of a specific community. For example, Kisukuma belongs to the Sukuma

LI

people of Mwanza, Simiyu, Geita and Shinyanga; Kingoni belongs to the Ngoni of
Songea; Kinyakyusa belongs to the Nyakyusa of Mbeya and Kiswahili belongs to the
N

people of Tanzania, Kenya and to some groups in other East African countries. All these
languages and others have variations in pronunciation and sometimes in vocabulary.
O

However, human language and its variants are not static; they are always dynamic.
No language is spoken uniformly by all its speakers. Language variation is divided
R

into two types: variation according to the user (dialect) and variation according to
FO

use (register). The first type of variation leads to different types of dialects such as
geographical or regional dialects, social dialects and individual dialects or idiolects.
Users may also develop pidgin, which may later become creoles as a result of persistent
regional variations. Variations according to users can show the language users’ place
of origin through pronunciation, vocabulary types, and some grammatical properties.
Variation according to use, conversely, is determined by the nature of activity in
which language is functioning. It reflects social order in the sense of process (types
of social activity). Jargon and slang are distinctive features. The factors that lead to
variation according to use include age, gender, topic or subject, culture and social

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status. Normally, the choice of language is a USE ONLY process, and a speaker chooses
conscious
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a language depending on how they need to use it.
Other language varieties which are geographical but different from dialects, owing
to their accommodation of simplified forms, are pidgins and creoles. Geographical
varieties are identified based on their geographical locations. Examples include
Nigerian Pidgin English, Chinese Pidgin English and the Jamaican creole.
A pidgin is a language variety that develops from contact between groups of people
who speak different languages to fulfil a particular communicative goal such as trade.
In the past, pidgins developed when foreign traders needed to communicate with the
local population or workers on plantations and in factories. Such people had different

LY
linguistic backgrounds.
A pidgin is characterised by limited vocabulary and simplified grammar. The grammatical

N
structure may expand when it is used for communication over a long period. It is also

O
characterised by lack of native speakers. However, pidgins are expanded in terms of
vocabulary and structure, and they are acquired by children as their native language.
Good examples are Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea and Nigerian Pidgin English in
SE
West Africa. These were adopted as mother tongues in their respective areas. Pidgins
that have gained native speakers are known as creoles.
U
An expanded pidgin is an advanced kind of pidgin that develops as a result of long-
term contact between speakers from different linguistic backgrounds. It is also known
as a permanent pidgin. Examples of expanded or permanent pidgins include Korean
E

Bamboo English, Japanese Bamboo English and Krio English in Sierra Leone. An
N

expanded pidgin develops into a creole in the long run.

LI

A creole is a pidgin that has become a native language of a group of speakers, particularly
the descendants of pidgin-speaking parents. The adopted pidgin is used to meet daily
N

and even official communication needs. The vocabulary and grammar of a creole tend
to be more complex than those of a pidgin. Creoles are classified based on the language
O

that supplies the most vocabulary or lexicon. Therefore, there are English-based
creoles, French-based creoles and Portuguese-based creoles. Examples of English-
R

based creoles are the Jamaican creole, the Hawaiian creole, and Krio in Sierra Leone.
FO

Exercise
1. Using the knowledge developed from reading the text above, substantiate
the contention that human languages are not static.
2. Using vivid examples from Tanzania, explain the causes of language
variation.
3. What are the factors for the emergence of geographical or regional
dialects?
4. Describe the concept of register in the context of language variation.

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Causes of language variation FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Several factors can cause language variation in a particular speech community. The
common factors include social status, geographical dispersion, age difference, time,
occupation, gender difference and language contact. Each of these factors is explained
in the following sub-section.
(a) Social status: Speakers of any language differ in terms of language use according
to their social status. Factors such as education, age, social position, relationships,
occupation, personality, financial power and culture influence language choice
and use among speakers of the same language. The degree of formality, when
a speaker addresses a person who is assumed to have a high social status, is

LY
maximised contrary to when the same speaker addresses a person with the same
or lower social status. Similarly, the society expects people who have high social
status to use standard and formal language, for example, in parliament. However,

N
as duties and responsibilities change, these speakers meet other audiences like

O
family members, friends and relatives, and possibly change both their status and
language variety.
(b) SE
Geographical dispersion: The language of the people who speak the same
language may vary owing to geographical dispersion. As their number increases,
people are forced to find other places to sustain their lives away from their places
U
of origin. In the new environment, they develop a distinct vocabulary, grammar
and pronunciation, which differ from the speech of their parents. After a certain
E

period, a new variety of language develops.

N

(c) Age difference: The age of the speaker and the audience are also a factor for
language variation. The youth speak a language which is different from that of
LI

adults. For example, in Kiswahili language, expressions like Bi mkubwa (mother),

Mshua (father) and Beki tatu (a house girl) are commonly used by the youth.
N

The elderly normally use wise sayings and phrases to warn and educate people,
O

especially the youth.

(d) Time: Language is not static; it changes with time. The language used a hundred
R

years ago is different from the language used today. For example, in English there
Old English, Middle English and now Modern English. These varieties differ
FO

in vocabulary and grammar. For example, the word ‘thy’ was used in Middle
English, but it has been replaced with ‘your’ in Modern English.
(e) Occupation: Every profession uses its own terminologies and language style that
meets its requirements. For example, lawyers often use long, complex sentences,
such as “The provisions for termination hereinafter appearing or will at the cost
of the borrower forthwith comply with the same contract…”

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(f) Gender differences: Men FOR ONLINEuse

and women USE ONLY differently. Women use some
language
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vocabulary which differentiates them from men probably because of socialisation.
Likewise, in terms of style, women tend to be more polite while men are more
directive.
(g) Language contact: When two or more languages come into contact, there are
chances that they will influence each other by switching codes, borrowing
vocabulary, sharing sound properties or adopting some grammatical properties.
In the long run, each language will develop a variety that has adopted and
accommodated language properties from other languages. For example, a young
man who is competent in his mother tongue leaves his village and suddenly

LY
gets exposed to the Kiswahili speech community. After a while, he may speak
Kiswahili which is influenced by the grammar of his mother tongue, and vice
versa.

N
It should be noted that Africans and colonialists spoke different languages. So, the

O
contact was between people who spoke different languages. Linguistically, when
people who speak different languages meet, their languages mix. The process in which
SE
two different languages come into contact is called ‘language contact’. In such contact,
the languages start to influence one another. Some may change; others may die and
societies may become bilingual or multilingual. The study of language contact is known
U
as contact linguistics.
E

Exercise
N

1. How does a pidgin develop?

LI

2. What do you know about language variation?

3. What causes a dialect to occur in a particular speech community?
N

4. Discuss and write any four differences between the two major English
O

dialects - American English and British English.

R

Specific variation of language in society

FO

Under Language variation in society, you have learned that language varies either
according to use (dialect) or according to user (register). You have also learned the
causes of that variation. In the following section, you will learn in detail the two
types of language variation and other specific variations associated with changes in
pronunciation and vocabulary.

Dialect
Dialect, as you may have read in Activity 2.5, is a sub-categorisation of a language
linguistically differentiated via vocabulary, spelling, grammar and pronunciation. It is

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generally a variety of languageFOR ONLINE USE

distinguished ONLY
based on vocabulary, spelling, grammar
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and pronunciation. The following are some of the differences between British English
(BrE) and American English (AmE) in terms of vocabulary and spelling:
Differences in vocabulary
S/N British English (BrE) American English (AmE)
1. petrol gas
2. trousers pants
3. rubber eraser
4. maize corn
5. sweets candy
Differences in spelling

LY
1. colour color
2. programme program
3. centre center

N
4. cheque check

O
5. honour honor
Differences in grammar
1. I have found my bag. I found my bag.
We will
2. to Sunday. be here from Wednesday SE
We are here Wednesday through
Sunday.
3. She has got the book. She has gotten the book.
U
Differences in pronunciation
1. between vowels; e.g.when
/t/ is pronounced /t/ it is /t/ is pronounced as /ʧ/ when it appears
in situation between vowels; e.g. in situation
E

Non-rhotic dialect – it does not Rhotic dialect – there is r-colouring in

N

pronounce ‘r’ when it appears

2. before consonants, as it is in words like - your own /jʊərɔ:ʊn/
AmE.
LI

3. ‘God’ is pronounced /god/. ‘God’ is pronounced /ga:d/.

N

It is important to know that there are many variations between British English and
O

American English, especially in pronunciation.

Types of dialects
R

There are different types of dialects in a particular language. They include regional
FO

dialects, social dialects, chronological (historical/temporal) dialects and idiolects.

(a) Regional dialects

People in one geographical area will demonstrate features which are different from
those of people in another geographical area but who speak the same language. So, the
language variation caused by the distance existing between speakers of the same speech
community is called a regional dialect. Regional dialects are found at national and
international levels. At the national level, some dialects of British English are Welsh
English, Scottish English and Cockney. And at the international level, English dialects

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include British English, American English,USE ONLY English and South African
Australian
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English. Likewise, Kiswahili dialects include Kimvita (Mombasa), Kiunguja (Zanzibar)
and Kingwana (Democratic Republic of Congo - DRC). Common differences under
regional dialects may be found in grammar, pronunciation, spelling and vocabulary.
(b) Social dialects
Dialectal differences are connected with social class, education level or both. Highly
educated people and those belonging to a higher social class tend to use more features
belonging to the standard language. Differences in levels of education between speakers
strongly affect the extent of their vocabulary and language style. Similarly, every
profession has its own expressions, including technical terminology and sometimes

LY
casual words or idioms, which are peculiar to the group. Therefore, a language variety
resulting from social stratification is called a social dialect or a sociolect.
(c) Historical/temporal dialects

N
Language is like a living organism. This means that it is born; it grows and may

O
finally die. Thus, language is not static; it changes with time. Some languages change
quickly, while others change gradually. People tend to speak approximately to what has
SE
been written, thus making the change slow. A language which is not written changes
remarkably. The Old English spoken in the 8th century has changed remarkably in
pronunciation, lexis and meaning. The same applies to Kiswahili and, indeed, to all
U
other languages. Thus, the language variety “caused” by time is known as a historical
or temporal dialect.
E

Idiolect
An idiolect is a variety of language as used by an individual speaker. People differ in
N

the way they speak a language. You can identify particular speakers by merely listening
LI

to them, even without seeing them. A speaker may use certain terms and sentences in a
special way, which differentiates him from other speakers. Some people may prefer to
N

use expressions such as in fact, actually, you know and so forth.

O

Register
A register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular
R

social setting. Basically, this is variation of language according to use. Registers vary
because language is used for different purposes, in different contexts and with different
FO

audiences. For example, there is a legal register, advertising register, bank register,
and a register for weather forecasting. We commonly recognise registers because of
particular uses of grammar. We also use the term “register” to refer to whether language
is being used formally or informally.
Accent
An accent refers to a variation in pronunciation among different speakers of the
same language. It may also be defined as a distinctive way of pronouncing words
in a language, which is associated with a particular country, area or social class. For

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FOR
example, in Tanzania, one can tell ONLINE
that USEbelongs
someone ONLY to the Pare ethnic group if the
DO NOT DUPLICATE
speaker says, thithi (we), instead of sisi (we) in Kiswahili. In England, there are many
different accents.
Activity 2.6
In groups, list and discuss some examples of Kiswahili words which are pronounced
differently by various ethnic groups in Tanzania.
Slang
This refers to an informal version of a given language. It is commonly used by young
people though it may also be used by other groups of people. Many languages have this

LY
version. People use it to make their conversations confidential or more colourful. Some
examples are given as follows.

N
Slang expression Meaning
What’s up man? How are you?

O
Chill Relax or calm down
Cool Fantastic or good
Hot
SE
Attractive/good looking
Wasted Intoxicated or drunk
U
Jargon
Jargon is normally used by social or professional groups for in-group communication
E

only. It may not be understood by the rest of the speech community. And, if it happens
N

that others understand it, the users may immediately change the jargon by replacing it
with another form of jargon (that is, they immediately change words and vocabulary).
LI

Activity 2.7
N

1. Using dictionaries or the Internet, write the meanings of the following English
O

slang expressions:
(a) knackered
R

(b) I’m in
(c) buck
FO

(d) rip-off
(e) dunno
(f) pal
(g) pig out
(h) go bananas
(i) piece of cake
(j) ace

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2. FORexpressions
Replace the underlined slang ONLINE USE ONLY
with words from Standard English.
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(a) Can you Adam and Eve it?
(b) Don’t just write it. You need to use your loaf first.
(c) Take a butcher’s at them.
(d) Don’t fall in love with her. She is cut and carried.
(e) I need a fisherman’s daughter.
International language
An international language is a language used to facilitate communication between
people from different nations. For a language to be international, it should be spoken
across nations and used as a medium of communication in science, technology, literature

LY
and the international mass media.

An international language serves as a means of communication between nations or

N
ethnic groups. It is also known as a universal language, a language used by people

O
from different linguistic backgrounds to facilitate communication between them and
reduce the misunderstandings and antagonism caused by linguistic differences. An
SE
international language is usually not intended to replace mother tongues, but to play a
secondary or auxiliary role in furthering international communication.

Activity 2.8
U
In groups, discuss the assertion that Kiswahili and English are international languages.
E

Foreign language
N

A foreign language is a language not commonly spoken in the country of the language
LI

learner. It is a language originally from another country. A language is considered

foreign if it is learned largely in the classroom and is not spoken in the society where
N

the teaching process occurs. A distinction is often made between ‘foreign’ and ‘second’
language learning. A second language implies that the learner resides in an environment
O

where the learned language is spoken. For example, a Tanzanian who learns Kiswahili
in addition to the mother tongue learns it as a second language.
R

Lingua franca
FO

A lingua franca is an auxiliary language that is used to facilitate day-to-day

communication between or among people who speak different languages. Lingua
francas have developed worldwide throughout human history. For example, Kiswahili
is a lingua franca in Tanzania while English, Spanish and French are the lingua franca
of the world. A lingua franca may not necessarily be an international language.

Activity 2.9
In groups, find evidence showing that English and Kiswahili are lingua francas.

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Diglossia FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Diglossia refers to a situation in which two dialects or languages are used in a single
language community but in different situations. It may also be defined as a particular
kind of language standardisation, where two distinct varieties of a language exist side
by side in the same speech community. Each of the two varieties is assigned a definite
social function. The two languages are also given different labels; the version which
has a low status is labelled “L” or “low”, while that with a high status is labelled “H”
or “high”. The latter is used in certain situations such as in parliament and schools, but
it is not used in ordinary conversations. To understand this clearly, consider the use of
ethnic languages versus Kiswahili and Kiswahili versus English in Tanzania.

LY
English and Kiswahili in Tanzania
Activity 2.10

N
Read the following text carefully in groups and do the exercise that follows.

O
During the British colonial rule in Tanzania, English was the official language
used at all levels of education, except in native schools or African schools, where
SE
Kiswahili was used. Kiswahili was considered to be of a lower status than English.
After independence (1961-1967), the role and status of Kiswahili changed. On 10th
December 1962, Mwalimu Nyerere addressed the Parliament in Kiswahili, making
U
it a de facto medium of parliamentary debates. A little later, Kiswahili was declared
the national language and the medium of instruction and communication in primary
E

schools, as well as the official language of the country. After the Arusha Declaration
N

of 1967, Kiswahili was officially declared the national language. English was reserved
for functions which Kiswahili could not fulfil adequately. In the same year (1967), the
LI

National Kiswahili Council (Baraza la Kiswahili Tanzania-BAKITA) was established

to promote Kiswahili.
N

Between 1973 and 1984, several initiatives were made to promote Kiswahili as a
O

medium of instruction and communication. One of such initiatives was a Five-Year

Plan. The second was the formation of the Presidential Commission for Education in
R

the 1980s to review the education system in Tanzania. The commission was chaired by
the then Minister of Education, Jackson Makweta. The commission presented its report
FO

in 1982. One of its recommendations was that Kiswahili should be used as a medium
of instruction at all levels of education. However, the proposal was later rejected, thus
restricting Kiswahili as a medium of instruction to primary schools and only as a subject
at other levels of education.
As recently as 2009, the former Institute of Kiswahili Research merged with the
Department of Kiswahili of the University of Dar es Salaam to form the Institute of
Kiswahili Studies (TATAKI). One of its objectives is to coordinate the standardisation
and development of Kiswahili in Tanzania.

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On a separate note, English language fulfilsUSE ONLY
various functions throughout the world.
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English is spoken as a native language by more than 300 million people in the world.
The countries which use English as their native language are mainly the United
Kingdom (UK), the United States of America (USA), Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
South Africa and some other Commonwealth countries.
Many countries in the world, including Tanzania, have adopted English as one of their
official languages. A majority of such countries are former British colonies. In addition,
other countries use English as an official language because they do not have a native
language, which would perform such functions. In all these countries, the language
is used in all official matters. As a foreign language, English is used to communicate

LY
with foreigners such as English native speakers. People in countries such as Ghana,
Rwanda, Tanzania and many others use English as a foreign language.

N
Furthermore, English is a second language to people who have already acquired their
native or first languages. It can be learned at school or in the community. Many people

O
in Kenya, Uganda, Nigeria, Zimbabwe and Zambia, for instance, learn English as a
second language after acquiring their ethnic languages. As an international language,
SE
English is used to communicate with people beyond their national boundaries for
various purposes in different fields, including business, politics, trade and academics.
In this way, English language connects people from different countries.
U
Exercise
1. Describe the changing status of English and Kiswahili in Tanzania from the
E

1960s to 1990s.
N

2. The linguistic situation and or the language policy in Tanzania used to

favour foreign languages, specifically English (in the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s
LI

and 1990s) more than the local languages, including Kiswahili. What is
N

your opinion about this?

3. Why was the National Kiswahili Council (BAKITA) established?
O

4. Analyse the roles and duties of the National Kiswahili Council (BAKITA) in
promoting and developing Kiswahili as the national language in Tanzania.
R

5. What were the deliberate efforts made by the Tanzanian government to

FO

promote Kiswahili in Tanzania?

6. What were the factors that necessitated the selection of English and
Kiswahili as the media of instruction in Tanzania?
7. Explain why it was easier for Tanzanians to learn English in the 1960s than
it is at present?
8. Using the knowledge from reading the passage above and your personal
experience, explain the current roles and status of Kiswahili and English in
Tanzania.

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The status and role of EnglishFOR ONLINE

in the worldUSE ONLY
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English has a different status and roles in different parts of the world.
(a) English as a native language: By a native language, we mean the first language or
mother language. It is the language which people acquire before they are exposed to
any other language. English is used as a native language in Britain, USA, Australia,
New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and many of the Caribbean islands. In Kenya
and Zimbabwe for instance, only a few people speak English as their first language.

(b) English as a second language: A second language refers to a language which is not
one’s first language, but it is necessary in certain official, educational or commercial

LY
activities. English is the second language in most commonwealth countries such as
Pakistan, India, Nigeria, Kenya, Malawi and Zambia. It should be noted that the
second language is defined by its wide usage in the society compared with a foreign

N
language. In Tanzania, for example, French is a foreign language because its use is

O
very limited.

(c) English as a foreign language: A foreign language is a language used to communicate

SE
with foreigners, read books and newspapers, engage in commerce, and do travel-
related activities.
U
(d) English as a national language: A national language is a language considered
to be the main code of communication in a country and is officially declared so.
E

For example, Kiswahili is the national language in Tanzania. English is a national

language in many Commonwealth countries such as Nigeria and Zimbabwe. In
N

countries where there are many languages with national status the term ‘official
LI

language’ is preferred. For example, in Canada both English and French are used
as official languages, just like in Tanzania where both English and Kiswahili are
N

officially used.
O

(e) English as an official language: English is used in official activities such as teaching
in secondary schools and colleges. It is also used in courts and parliamentary
R

proceedings. An official language is not necessarily a national language. For

example, in Tanzania and Rwanda, English is an official language; however, it is
FO

not the national language.

(f) English as a lingua franca: A lingua franca is a language used where several
languages exist. A good example is Uganda where different native languages exist,
but English is the lingua franca. Likewise, in Tanzania, there are about 150 native
languages, but Kiswahili is the lingua franca.

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Activity 2.11 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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In groups, analyse the situations and or countries where English language is used as:
(a) a native language
(b) a second language
(c) a foreign language
(d) a national language
(e) an official language
(f) a lingua franca
Status and role of English in Tanzania
English is used as an international language in Tanzania because Tanzania is one of

LY
the countries in the world that use the language in international affairs, including
international conferences, diplomacy and trade. Apart from that, English is used as
a foreign language. It has also been used as a medium of instruction in post-primary

N
educational institutions. English is also taught at all levels of education. This has been

O
the case since 1961.
However, English seems to have the status of both a foreign and second language in the
SE
country. In some situations, English is only used as a foreign language while in other
situations, however, it is used as a second language, especially in urban areas where
Kiswahili is used as the first language.
U
Code-switching and code-mixing
E

There are two types of language alternation: code-switching and code-mixing. Code
switching is the use of words, phrases and sentences from two different languages or
N

varieties. This is a complete shift from one language or code to another. For example,
LI

a speaker switches from English to Kiswahili in the following utterance: “I will take
you to school halafu nikuache uendelee na shughuli zako” [I will take you to school
N

and let you continue with your own business]. Code-mixing, on the contrary, refers
to the mixing of languages in the same utterance. This occurs when a speaker or a
O

writer changes the language to repeat what he/she has just said. That is from language
A…B…A. The letters represent the codes or languages. For instance: [I will text you
R

|tukubaliane (for us to reach an agreement) | what to do]. The speaker begins with
English, then switches to Kiswahili and goes back to English.
FO

There are three types of code-switching, namely inter-sentential, intra-sentential and

intra-word code-switching. This means code-switching differs in the location of the
point at which the language-switch occurs. Language switches at phrasal, sentential
or discoursal boundaries. Each part of the utterance must agree with the rules of the
corresponding language being spoken. When code-switching or code-mixing occurs,
the following are some of the reasons behind it: providing clarification, excluding
others, lack of appropriate vocabulary, quoting a source and sometimes for prestige.

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 Contextualising the basic linguistic concepts

Activity 2.12 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Pair up with your fellow student and do the following:
1. Define ‘code switching’ and ‘code mixing’.
2. Briefly explain the reasons for code-switching and code-mixing.
3. In groups, read the following utterances (a) - (c) and identify the category of
language alternation in each. Give reason(s) for each category.
(a) ‘I will pass by your house, ila nikute umejiandaa’. [I will pass by your house,
but I must find you prepared].

LY
(b) I jumped up na kuanguka’. [I jumped up and fell].
(c) ‘Kesho nitaku-inform kuhusu ombi lako’. [I will inform you about your request
tomorrow].

N
4. Read the following phrases carefully and do the exercise (a) - (d) below.

O
tuli-enjoy sana; ku-party; usini-beep tena; iki-strike utani-consult;
utani-inform.
SE
(a) What are the language alternation categories used in the expressions above?
(b) Say whether each of these patterns is an example of code-switching or code-
U
mixing.
(c) Describe code-switching as it appears in each expression.
E

(d) “A speaker can switch or mix codes to clarify a point.” Support this statement
N

by writing ten examples of code-switching or code-mixing. Write a paragraph

LI

that contains ten examples of code-switching or code-mixing intended for

clarifying a point.
N
O
R
FO

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Exercise FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. In groups, describe the following linguistic concepts and briefly explain their
relevance to the language situation in Tanzania. Then present your report to
the class.
(a) accent
(b) dialect
(c) sociolect
(d) lingua franca
(e) diglossia
2. Differentiate the following pairs of linguistic concepts. Use examples from

LY
Tanzania, where possible, to clarify your arguments. Then, present your
work to the class.
(a) first language and mother tongue

N
(b) second language and foreign language
(c) official language and standard language

O
(d) national language and international language
(e) language acquisition and language learning
SE
3. Match the linguistic concepts in Column A with their meanings in Column
B. Number 1 has been done as an example.
Column A Column B
U
No Concept Answer No Meaning
1. Accent x i A language variation based on
E

socio-economic status, gender,

N

ethnic group, age, occupation and

other criteria. It is a social dialect
LI

referring to the form of speech

that is associated with a particular
N

social class.
O

2. Dialect ii A language accepted and declared

in the language policy of a
R

particular nation as being used in

all government official functions
FO

3. Sociolect iii A language variety that develops in

a situation where groups of people
who speak different languages meet
to fulfil a particular communicative
goal such as trade. Such people
must have different linguistic
backgrounds.

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 Contextualising the basic linguistic concepts

Column A FOR ONLINE USE ONLY Column B

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No Concept Answer No Meaning
4. National iv A language that is unconsciously
language acquired from parents or guardians
5. Standard v A language that facilitates
language communication between people
from different nations who do not
share a common language
6. Lingua vi Language variation according to the

LY
franca user. It is used to refer to language
variation among speakers of the
same language. The variations can

N
be noted in pronunciation, spelling,
vocabulary and grammar.

O
7. Diglossia vii A language variety that has been
SE
standardised and is used as a
yardstick against which to measure
other varieties. It has higher status
U
in the community or nation than
other varieties.
E

8. First viii Is a situation where two languages

language or language varieties exist side by
N

or mother side in a community and each one

LI

tongue is used for different purposes. One

language or variety is considered
N

to be high. It can be used in

government, the mass media,
O

education, courts of law and other

areas. In contrast, another language
R

is non-prestigious and is used only

for communication purposes.
FO

9. Second ix A language designated by the

language government as the major means
of communication and is widely
spoken in the country
10. Foreign x Describes the way someone
language pronounces words and indicates the
linguistic background of the speaker.

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Column A DO NOT DUPLICATE
Column B
No Concept Answer No Meaning
11. Official xi Is a situation in which more than two
language languages are used in a particular
community. A person who knows
many languages is known as a
polyglot or a multilingual person.
12. International xii A language which is not native
language in a particular country and which
does not have native speakers. It is

LY
learned only for specific purposes.
13. Pidgin xiii Any language that a person

N
consciously learns after acquiring

O
his/her mother tongue

4. Discuss the factors that made English an international language.

SE
5. Discuss the role and status of English in the world.
6. Which language, between English and Kiswahili, should be used as the
medium of instruction in Tanzania’s higher learning institutions? Give reasons
U
for your choice.
7. Read different sources and write a short summary of each of the following
E

linguistic concepts:
N

(a) accent (h) language spread

(b) dialect (i) language modernisation
LI

(c) slang (j) pidgin

N

(d) colloquialisms (k) creole

(e) mutual intelligibility (l) code-switching
O

(f) language standardisation (m) code-mixing

(g) language reform (n) mother tongue
R

8. Assess the positive and negative effects of using English as a medium of

instruction in secondary and higher learning institutions in Tanzania.
FO

Reflection
1. What new knowledge have you learned from this chapter?
2. Write any five issues from this chapter that you would like to be clarified.
Discuss them with your friend.
3. Why is English an international language?

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Chapter DO NOT DUPLICATE

Three Word formation

Introduction
In any human language, it is vital to create new words to capture new situations and
development of that language. To ensure continuity of that language, new words are

LY
formed through word formation processes. Word formation is sometimes contrasted
with semantic change, which is a change in the meaning of a word. The boundary

N
between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to determine. In this
chapter, you will learn the concepts of morpheme, root and stem in the context of

O
word formation. You will also learn different ways of forming new words. In addition,
the chapter contains various activities to help you internalise your understanding.
SE
The competencies developed from reading this chapter will enable you to form new
words in English to meet certain communicative needs.
U
Concept of word formation
Word formation is learned under morphology. Morphology is the study of the internal
E

structure of words. Morphology also looks at the processes which lead to the formation
N

of new words or the modification of the existing words to form new ones.
Languages comprise words which belong to different classes. Some words form the
LI

core of the structure of a language; these are called lexical morphemes. Others perform
N

grammatical functions; hence, they are called functional morphemes. The concepts of
lexical versus functional morphemes are explained in this chapter, and you are expected
O

to take an active role in the learning process.

Morpheme
R

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in the structure of a word that may be
FO

either lexical or grammatical. A morpheme cannot be divided any further. A word like
unhappy has un- and happy as its minimal units of meaning. Each of the two units
represents a distinct abstract concept or meaning in the speaker’s mind. In this word,
un- means ‘not’ and happy means being ‘glad’ or ‘joyous’.
Types of morphemes
Morphemes can be divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.
Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words and can function independently.
Words such as “jump” and “man” can stand alone as individual words. Free morphemes

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FORand
are further categorised into lexical ONLINE USE ONLY
grammatical morphemes. Lexical morphemes
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have content that can be described. For example, the morpheme “man” refers to a male,
adult human being. Most of these morphemes have antonyms or opposite forms. For
example, the opposite of man is woman, the opposite of boy is girl, and the opposite
of young is old. These morphemes allow new members to be introduced. For example,
it is possible to develop new words to nouns from adjectives. The adjectives happy,
sad and good become the nouns happiness, sadness and goodness by attaching the
suffix -ness to them. Because of this, these morphemes are called open word classes.
Grammatical morphemes, conversely, have no descriptive content. For example, it is
extremely difficult to define pronouns such as she, he or it. Since they lack descriptive
content, their role is limited to fulfilling grammatical functions in sentences. These

LY
functions include showing tense, number, person, case and gender. A good example of
grammatical morphemes is a group of auxiliaries which, apart from lacking content,

N
also express tense – is and are express the present tense, while was and were express
the past tense. These morphemes do not allow new members to be formed; hence, they

O
are called closed word classes. Basically, grammatical morphemes are few in number,
and as such, they are referred to as minor word classes.
SE
In contrast, bound morphemes are those that can only occur in combination; they
are part of a word. Bound morphemes always appear in conjunction with a root and
U
sometimes with other bound morphemes. Morphemes such as -s, -es and -er are
bound morphemes (Affixes) as they cannot stand alone - they must be attached to
other morphemes. Bound morphemes are further categorised into inflectional and
E

derivational morphemes. Inflectional morphemes are attached to the roots of words to

N

add grammatical information such as tense, number, case and person. The words plays,
played and playing with the affixes -s, -ed and -ing are not regarded as different verbs,
LI

but they show tense or aspect. Likewise, adding a plural inflection to regular nouns like
door/doors, desk/desks, chair/chairs and tree/trees does not change the basic meanings
N

of the nouns; the morpheme just shows plurality. Thus, inflectional morphemes add
O

grammatical information to words without changing their word classes. Derivational

morphemes, on the contrary, are attached to the roots of words to change word classes.
For example, the addition of the affix -er to the verbs play, work and teach changes
R

the verbs to the nouns player, worker and teacher. Besides changing word classes,
FO

derivational morphemes can also change the meaning of words. For example, when the
derivational affix un- is attached to the word kind, the word changes to unkind, which
is the opposite of the adjective kind. It also changes nouns from concrete to abstract;
for example, brother – brotherhood, chief – chiefdom, king – kingdom. Figure 3.1
summarises the types of morphemes.

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Lexical morphemes

Free morpheme
Grammatical morphemes

Morpheme

Derivational morphemes

LY
Bound morpheme
Inflectional morphemes

N
Figure 3.1 Types of morphemes

O
Activity 3.1
1. Using a hyphen or a dash, divide the
SE(f)
(g)
unkind
colonialism
following words into their morphemes. (h) taller
U
Give the meaning and function of each (i) strong
morpheme you have identified. (j) strongest
(k) big
E

(a) worker
(b) kindness 3. Study Figure 3.1; and then explain
N

(c) slowly the differences between the following

LI

(d) interschool pairs by providing 10 examples for

(e) multilingual each.
N

(f) bilingual (a) Free morphemes versus bound

(g) unhappiness morphemes
O

(h) hopelessly (b) Lexical morphemes versus

(i) coexist grammatical morphemes
R

2. Identify the types of morphemes in (c) Derivational morphemes versus

inflectional morphemes
FO

each of the following words and state

how many morphemes there are in 4. Pair up with your fellow student
each word. and identify the morphemes in the
(a) plays following words:
(b) Asha (a) education
(c) James (b) jumped
(d) men’s (c) unkind
(e) boxes (d) unkindness

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(e) Moussa’s pen FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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(f) cleaning
(g) baskets
(h) played
(i) hyena
Realisation of morphemes
Morphemes are represented by morphs in the structure of a word. The word boys, for
example, has two morphs. The first morph is boy and the second morph is -s. Unlike the
word boys, the word precolonial has three morphs; these are pre-, -colon-, and -ial. The
morpheme pre- means before, colon(y) means a territory governed by a colonial power

LY
and -ial is an adjective derivative.
Some morphemes may be realised in different forms. The plural morpheme of nouns

N
is one of the morphemes which have different structural realisations -s, -es and -ies,
as in cat-s, mango-es and sk-ies. The same can be said with respect to verbs in which

O
morphemes indicating, for instance, tense (time of the action) is realised differently as:
• -s/-es (simple present tense) as in play-s/go-es;
• -ing (continuous tense/aspect) as in play-ing;
• -ed (simple past tense) as in play-ed; and
SE
• -en (perfect tense/aspect) as in: writt-en.
U
The realisations of the plural morphemes in nouns and tense/aspect marking morphemes
E

in verbs are further illustrated in Table 3.1.

N

Table 3.1 Plural and tense/aspect morphemes

LI

Plural morpheme Tense/aspect morpheme

Noun Morph Verb Morph
N

house house-s kick kick-s

O

photo photo-s beat beat-s

plant plant-s touch touch-es
R

bus bus-es scratch scratch-es

FO

Tax tax-es choose choos-ing

church church-es see see-ing
city cit-ies kiss kiss-ed
puppy pupp-ies call call-ed
party part-ies choose chos-en
These different realisations of the same morphemes are called allomorphs. Thus, -s, -es
and -ies in plural nouns are called allomorphs of the plural morpheme. Likewise, -s/-es,

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FOR
-ing, -ed and -en are allomorphs of ONLINE
the tenseUSE ONLY
and/or aspect morpheme in the English
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language. Table 3.2 shows different realisations of plural and tense/aspect morphemes.

Table 3.2 Different realisations of plural and tense/aspect morphemes

(i) Allomorphs of the plural nouns /s/
Noun - singular Noun - plural Allomorph
/s/
book books /s/
map maps /s/
tablet tablets /s/

LY
/z/
blackboard blackboards /z/
chair chairs /z/

N
table tables /z/
cabbage cabbages /z/

O
/iz/
bush bushes /iz/
glass
key
fly
glasses
keys
flies
SE /iz/
/iz/
/iz/
U
(ii) Allomorphs of the past tense and/or aspect /ed/
Noun - singular Noun - plural Allomorph
E

/id/
N

marry married /id/

carry carried /id/
LI

/t/
pick picked /t/
N

stop stopped /t/

O

kick kicked /t/

miss missed /t/
/d/
R

dance danced /d/

close closed /d/
FO

solve solved /d/

love loved /d/

In the tables 3.2 (i) - (ii), /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are the allomorphs of the plurals morpheme,
whereas /d/, /id/ and /t/ are the allomorphs of the tense/aspect morpheme. Other
allomorphs include the allomorphs of the negative morpheme, such as:
/in/ incorrect, inadequate, inability
/un/ unable, untouchable, unkind, unhappy

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/im/ FOR ONLINE

impossible, impolite, USE ONLY
immovable, immoral
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/il/ illogical, illegal
/ir/ irregular, irrelevant, irresponsible

And allomorphs of the indefinite article “an” and “a” in singular forms, such as:
a cup, a student, a cupboard
an elephant, an hour, an ankle

Activity 3.2

LY
1. Discuss with your fellow student the concept of allomorph using examples not
shown above. Then, provide 20 English words with negative morphemes.

N
2. Identify three words in which the morph -s is the allomorph of three different
morphemes.

O
Root, stem and base
SE
Understanding the concepts of root, stem and base is important in word formation.
(a) Root
The root refers to an uninflected form of a word that carries the basic meaning of a
U
lexeme. The root cannot be split further because it carries the core meaning of the word
to which other affixes can be attached. For example, the words slow, nation, develop
E

and play are roots because they cannot be split (segmented) further.
N

(b) Stem
LI

The stem is the form of a word to which an affix has been added. In other words, a
stem is the part of a word that exists after an inflectional affix has been attached to
N

it. The word national is a stem because it has the derivational affix -al attached to it.
In contrast, the word nation is the root because no affix has been attached to it, and it
O

cannot be split further into minimal units of meaning.

(c) Base
R

The base refers to any unit to which affixes of any kind may be attached. Affixes may be
FO

either inflectional for grammatical purposes or derivational for changing the meaning
or word class of the base. For example, when the inflectional affixes -s, -ed and -ing are
attached to the verb edit, we get the words edits, edited and editing, which are different
forms of the same verb. In contrast, when the derivational morpheme -or is added to
the verb edit, it changes the word into the noun editor. Thus, the word edit is the base
in this context.

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Activity 3.3 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. Using relevant examples, discuss in your groups the following concepts:
(a) morph
(b) allomorph
(c) base
(d) morphology
(e) word
2. With examples, discuss the difference between the following pairs:
(a) root versus stem
(b) root versus base

LY
(c) prefix versus suffix
(d) morpheme versus allomorph
(e) affix versus suffix

N
(f) stem versus base

O
Word formation in English
It was noted previously that all languages are made up of words of different kinds.
SE
As a language develops, new words and word forms are created. This section is about
word formation processes, which include affixation, coinage, compounding, blending,
clipping, borrowing, conversion, acronym, reduplication and symbolism.
U
(a) Coinage
E

Coinage or neologism is a process of forming new words in a particular language

deliberately or accidentally. Words like spindoctor, google, download and upload have
N

been coined. They were totally new words into the language at a time. They were
LI

invented to carter for certain communicative needs.

(b) Neologism
N

Neologism is a process of forming words which involves extension of the meaning

O

of the existing word. For example, in Kiswahili the word beberu is used to mean an
exploiter. The meaning has been extended from a male goat to an exploiter. However,
R

some literature and scholars have termed the processes of coinage and neologism as
synonymous.
FO

(c) Compounding
Compounding is a process of forming new words by combining two or more lexical
morphemes. Examples include headteacher, headmaster, daydream, sleepwalk,
noticeboard, teaspoon, classmate and razor blade. Compound words are grouped
based on two things: the way they are written and their meanings.
(i) The way they are written
At least three sub-categories can be identified here:
• Solid (closed) compounds: solid (closed) compound words are the words which

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FORaONLINE
are written without leaving USE ONLY
space between the bases. They are formed when
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two different words are combined, such as text + book – textbook; black +
board – blackboard. At one point, these words were not used together but they
are now accepted as a single word. Closed compound words are usually made
up of only two words.
• Open compounds: open compounds are compound words in which there is a
space between the two words (bases). Examples include cooking + pot – cooking
pot; attorney + general – attorney general; walking + stick – walking stick; raw
+ materials – raw materials; and washing + machine – washing machine. Such
compounds are written as two separate words but said together as one word

LY
with its own meaning.
• Hyphenated compounds: Hyphenated compounds are compounds in which
the two words involved are separated using a hyphen, for example man-made,

N
zig-zag, see-saw, gun-runner and machine-gun. There are many grammar

O
rules regarding hyphens in compound words. One important rule of thumb to
remember is that, in most cases, a compund adjective is hyphenated if placed
before the noun it modifies, but not if placed after the noun. For example, ‘a
SE
long-term solution’, ‘an up-to-date user guide’. But ‘This is not a good solution
for the long term’ or ‘This user guide is not up to date’.
U
(ii) According to their meanings
In this sub-category, at least two types of compounds can be identified:
E

• Transparent compounds: Transparent compounds are compound words whose

meanings retain or reflect the meanings of their separate bases; that is, the
N

meanings are directly derived from or related to the meanings of the separate
bases (words) that form them. Examples are carwash, classroom, handball and
LI

blackboard.
N

• Opaque compounds: Opaque compounds are compound words in which the

meanings are not derived from or not directly related to the meanings of the
O

separate words. Examples include honeymoon, sugar daddy, hot cake, and
white collar.
R

(d) Blending
FO

This is a process of forming new words by combining parts of different words. Some
common blends in English are newscast from news and broadcast, Interpol from
international and police, heliport from helicopter and airport, motel from motorist and
hotel, and smog from smoke and fog.

(e) Clipping
Clipping is a process of forming words by omitting some elements from a word to form
a new word. Elements may be omitted either from the beginning or from the end of a
word, or both. Examples of words which have been clipped at the beginning include

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plane from aeroplane and phone FOR ONLINE

from USE ONLY
telephone. Clipping may also take place at the
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end of a word such as photo from photograph or memo from memorandum.

(f) Borrowing
Borrowing is a process of forming new words by taking a word from another language
and using it in your language. The borrowed words are also known as loanwords.
English has borrowed words from many languages such as Latin, French, German
and Kiswahili. Table 3.3 shows English words that have been borrowed from other
languages.

Table 3.3 English words borrowed from other languages

LY
French Latin German Spanish Kiswahili
bon voyage kitchen hamster chocolate safari
laissez faire education sparerib guerrilla mzee

N
cliché data nickel alligator ugali

O
décor chalk cobalt vanilla matatu
fiancee butter quartz cockroach bodaboda
par avion library kindergarten macho
dossier longitude noodle SE
ranch
Like English, Kiswahili has borrowed words from English (shati, sketi, basi), German
U
(shule, kamusi, zahanati) Portuguese (bendera, sabuni, mvinyo, meza, leso, gereza),
Arabic (bakora, darasa, kitabu, magharibi, mashariki, imani, dini, marahaba) and from
Indian (bagia, duka, kachori, binzari, chai).
E
N

(g) Conversion
Conversion is a process of forming words by assigning a word to a new word class
LI

without modifying its base. For example, nouns such as gun, water, father and pin may
be used as verbs, as in the armed robbers were gunned down on the spot; the students
N

watered the flowers; and the posters were pinned to the wall. Other examples include
O

the following:
(i) This is a nice table. [The word table is a noun].
R

They table their issues for discussion whenever they arise. [table is used
as a verb].
FO

(ii) Please bring me some water to drink. [The word water is a noun].
All Form Five students should water the flowers in our garden. [water is
used as a verb].
(iii) They travelled by ship [The word ship is noun].
They want to ship their goods to South Africa [ship is used as a verb].

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(h) Acronyms and abbreviations FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Acronym are words which have been formed by taking initial letters from several
words and putting them together to form new words. This process is also known
as initialism or alphabetism. Examples of acronyms are UNO from United Nations
Organisation; UNESCO from United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural
Organisation; SADC from Southern African Development Community; and ECOMOG
from Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group. In Tanzania,
they include PCCB from Prevention and Combating of Corruption Bureau; NMB from
National Microfinance Bank; and TRA from Tanzania Revenue Authority. Conversely,
abbreviations are shortened forms of words such as Dr for doctor, cm for centimetre(s)
or Wed for Wednesday.

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(i) Affixation
Affixation is a process of forming words by attaching affixes to the roots or stems of

N
words. The item attached to the root or stem of a word may be a prefix (attached before
the root or stem), an infix (attached within the root or stem) or a suffix (attached after

O
the root or stem). Examples are unkind, kindness and passers-by in which affixes are
attached to the initial position, final position and within one of the words.
(j) Back formation
SE
Back formation is a special kind of clipping which involves changing a word to another
part of speech, usually from a noun to a verb, such as from editor to edit, translation to
U
translate, examination to examine, television to televise and option to opt.
E

(k) Reduplication
Reduplication is a process of forming words by repeating some roots or the parts of
N

roots. English words such as hip hop, wishy washy, higgledy piggledy and humpty
dumpty have been formed through reduplication. Reduplication plays certain functions:
LI

(i) To intensify adjectives, for example tip-top;

N

(ii) To imitate sounds, for example ding-dong;

(iii) To show the movement of things, for example zig-zag, criss-cross, see-saw,
O

helter-skelter; and
(iv) To suggest a state of disorder, for example wishy-washy, tick-tacky, topsy-
R

turvy.
(l) Symbolism
FO

Symbolism is a process of forming words by morphologically changing their internal

structure to indicate some grammatical information; example are tooth – teeth (to
indicate plural), go – went and see – saw (to indicate change of tenses).
(m) Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia are words formed by imitating the natural sounds of people, animals or
objects. Examples of onomatopoeic words are hiss (sound of a snake), cackle (sound
of a hen), bow wow (sound of a barking dog), cuckoo (sound of a long-tailed medium-
sized bird) splash (sound of something striking or falling into a liquid) and beep (sound
of a horn).
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 Word formation

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Activity 3.4 7. The word powerless includes the
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1. Discuss with a friend the meanings suffix -less which means without
of the words cackle, hiss, bow wow, something, not doing or using
cuckoo, splash, hiccup and knock. something. List and pronounce five
Find their etymological definitions. words with the suffix -less.
2. Describe the following word 8. Many words that are formed through
formation processes and provide coinage started as trademarks, such
three examples for each case. as thermos, bandaid and now google.
(a) affixation Find similar words and explain how
(b) symbolism they became general words.

LY
(c) reduplication 9. An acronym is a word formed by
(d) acronym taking the initial letters of several
(e) compounding words and putting them together,

N
such as UNO (from the United
3. Prefixes are classified according to
Nations Organisation) and Vodacom

O
the meanings they convey. Describe
(from Voice Data Communication).
the following types of prefixes giving
Compile a list of 20 acronyms found
two examples for each:
(a) negative prefixes
SE
in English. Why is it possible to
pronounce them that way?
(b) reversative prefixes
10. Identify the roots and stems of the
U
(c) pejorative prefixes
following words and mention their
(d) prefixes of degree or size
word classes:
(e) prefixes of attitude
E

(a) doing
4. Identify the type of each underlined (b) production
N

prefix in the following words: (c) taken

LI

(a) belittle (d) export

(b) misleading 11. What is compounding?
N

(c) unaffordable 12. How does compounding differ from

(d) supermarket blending?
O

(e) co-operate 13. What is a word class?

5. Add suffixes to the following 14. Assign the following lexical items to
R

adjectives to change them into their parts of speech:

(a) critically
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nouns:
(a) polite (b) attend
(b) punctual (c) homely
(c) happy (d) off
(e) behind
6. Change the following nouns into (f) clarity
verbs: 15. Give two examples of compound
(a) symbol words formed from the following
(b) beauty combinations:
(c) modernity

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 Word formation

(a) verb and noun FOR ONLINE USE (a)

ONLY break
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(b) noun and noun (b) memory
(c) adjective and noun (c) measure
(d) adjective and adjective (d) medicine
(e) noun and verb (e) mentally
16. Arrange the following words (f) science
into adjective compounds, verb 21. Without adding any morphemes to
compounds and noun compounds: the words, construct correct sentences
(a) man-made using the given words as nouns and
(b) sleep walk as verbs (two sentences for each).
(c) school uniform (a) head

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(d) hand-writing (b) cry
17. With three examples for each, explain (c) mother
(d) father

N
the difference between a reversative
and a negative prefix. (e) stone

O
18. Use prefixes to negate the following (f) table
(g) export
words:
(h) skin
(a) ceremoniously
(b) moral
SE
(i) round
(j) switch
(c) alignment (k) love
U
(d) legal (l) increase
(e) courteous 22. Using affixes, provide a word for
E

(f) regular each of the following words and then

(g) possible make one sentence for each.
N

(h) sane (a) make it large

LI

(i) human (b) make it simple

(j) kind (c) make it long
N

19. Using suffixes, change the following (d) make it hard

lexical items into nouns: (e) make it sharp
O

(a) embody (f) make it dangerous

(b) reconcile (g) make it powerful
(h) make it false
R

(c) corrugate
(d) poor 23. With examples, explain the meaning
FO

(e) eloquent of each linguistic term below.

(f) practise (a) pejorative prefixes
(g) produce (b) gender suffixes
(h) expose (c) onomatopoeia
(i) long (d) diminutive suffixes
(j) wide (e) initialism
20. Provide the adjectival form of each (f) multiple processes
of the following words and write one (g) symbolism
sentence for each: (h) verbless compounds

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 Word formation

(i) infixation FOR ONLINE 27.

USE With
ONLY vivid examples, explain five
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(j) reduplication functions of reduplication.
(k) coinage 28. How does total reduplication differ
(l) conversion from partial reduplication?
24. Mention different types of affixation. 29. What is clipping?
25. Using relevant examples, show the 30. With five examples for each, explain
morphological process of affixation forward clipping, back clipping and
in the following words: complex clipping.
(a) national 31. What is borrowing? List 10 words
(b) disorientation which English has borrowed from
(c) subjectivism other languages. Give five reasons

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(d) sub-conjunction why borrowing is inevitable in any
(e) deoxyribonucleic language.

N
26. What is reduplication?

O
Reflection

SE
1. What new issues have you learned from this chapter?
2. What did you find to be the most interesting thing in the chapter?
U
3. Can you now define the concepts morpheme, root, stem and base?
4. Can you now identify morphemes, roots and stems on any list of words
E

given to you?
N

5. How this chapter has helped you to understand the concept of word formation?
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter DO NOT DUPLICATE

Four Using pronunciation and

prosodic features correctly
Introduction
We hear sounds of words of different languages when people utter them. We also say

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whether people have mastered a given language when they correctly pronounce the
words of that language. Similarly, speakers of English may be judged whether they
pronounce words correctly or not. When speakers of the same language differ in

N
their pronunciation, language varieties emerge. In this chapter, you will learn how
to pronounce English words, phrases and sentences correctly. You will also learn

O
and practise how to speak naturally by observing stress and intonation in connected
speech. Furthermore, you will practise to distinguish meanings of English words and
SE
sentences as a result of change in stress and intonation. The competencies developed
from reading this chapter will enable you to pronounce English words well and
confidently.
U
Spoken English
E

When speaking, the correct pronunciation of words and the correct use of prosodic
N

features such as stress, rhythm, tone and intonation are very important in order to
LI

communicate your information correctly. Articulating the words correctly and using
properly stress, tone and intonation in speech make your communication clearer.
N

English has two types of sounds: consonant sounds and vowel sounds. These sounds are
O

technically known as phonemes. One of the tasks of English learners is to identify the
sounds represented by different kinds of spellings. This chapter offers practical insights
R

into English consonant and vowel sounds. As you will notice, there are 44 English
sounds. However, there are only 26 letters of the alphabet, which implies that there are
FO

letters which represent more than one sound. You will also study the pronunciation of
English sounds, stress patterns and intonation.

Activity 4.1
In pairs or groups, answer the following questions:
(a) Why is it necessary to learn English pronunciation?
(b) How are the English stress patterns unique?
(c) Are English sentences always uttered the same way? Why?

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Pronunciation awareness FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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The natural way to acquire a language is learning to speak it first and write it later. That
is the privilege you get when you acquire your first language. In other words, a native
speaker acquires the ability to pronounce words without making any effort. Language
acquisition is automatic. However, a second language learner needs to make an effort
during language learning. When learning a second language, the learner needs to learn
pronunciation consciously. They know that they are learning a different language. This
is what you are going to do in the next sections. You will learn how to pronounce
English words correctly.

LY
Activity 4.2
In groups, pronounce the following words several times:
(a) five

N
(b) photo
(c) rough

O
(d) off

SE
What have you noticed? There are at least two things. First, the sound /f/ is realised in
all four words, but is represented differently. It is represented by the letter ‘f’ in ‘five’,
a sequence of letters “ph” in photo, “gh” in rough and “ff” in “off”. All these variations
U
suggest that there is no one to one correspondence between the English sound and the
English spelling system.
E

Identification of consonant and vowel sounds

N

Activity 4.3
LI

Study the following sets of words and then identify the sound that occurs at the beginning
of each word:
N

(a) apple, egg, eat, open, umbrella

(b) food, rat, papaya, banana
O

In set (a), all the words start with vowel sounds. Vowel sounds are pronounced with free
R

airflow. Interestingly, vowel sounds occur in every word in English. In set (b), all the
words start with consonant sounds. The consonant sounds are pronounced with some
FO

obstruction in the airstream. The consonant sounds are represented by letters like b, f,
d, t and s. Technically, consonant sounds are speech sounds whose production involves
partial or complete obstruction of the airstream at a particular point in the vocal tract.
In contrast, vowel sounds are sounds produced without the obstruction of the airstream
in the vocal tract. Collectively, consonant sounds and vowel sounds are called speech
sounds or phonemes. You may use a dictionary or any relevant printed or electronic
resource to guide you through defining the two terms appropriately.

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Activity 4.4 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Use a dictionary or any other relevant resources to define:
(a) a consonant
(b) a vowel
Standard British English or Received Pronunciation (RP) has 24 consonant sounds
and 20 vowel sounds. In dictionaries, sounds are represented using certain symbols.
Such symbols are referred to as IPA symbols. That is because they are recognised by an
association called the International Phonetic Association (IPA). The sounds are usually
put into slashes, that is / /, when they are transcribed phonemically.
Consonants are classified according to (a) whether or not the vocal folds are vibrating

LY
(voicing); (b) whether the sound is made with a fully stopped or marelly constricted air
stream (manner of articulation); (c) where in the mouth the stoppage or constriction is
made (its place of articulation); and (d) whether or not the lips are purse.

N
Activity 4.5

O
1. The following table represents the 24 English consonant sounds. Read them
carefully, paying attention to the bolded sounds in the words given.
S/N Consonant Example
SE
1. /p/ pea, pin, port, pope, papaya
U
2. /b/ bee, bean, bob, bobbed
3. /t/ tea, teacher, tot, top
4. /d/ dady, doll, deed, dodo
E

5. /k/ key, cook, kick, queue

N

6. /ɡ/ get, google, giggle, green

7. /f/ fee, foot, FIFA, phone, rough
LI

8. /v/ veal, van, vibes

9. /s/ see, seat, cease, city
N

10. /z/ zoo, zoom, zeal, nose

11. /θ/ three, thing, thought
O

12. /ð/ that, these, the

13. /ʃ/ she, ship, sheep
R

14. /ʒ/ treasure, measure, revision, provision

15. /ʈʃ/ church, chart, cheat
FO

16. /dʒ/ judge, gin, gym

17. /h/ hard, who, home
18. /w/ we, wet, wheel, whim
19. /n/ nun, need, noun
20. /m/ mum, moo, me
21. /ŋ/ ring, sing, dung
22. /j/ yet, yacht, yell
23. /l/ lead, learn, bill
24. /r/ read, road, room

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 Using pronunciation and prosodic features correctly

FOR by
2. Identify the sound represented ONLINE USE
each of theONLY
following phonetic symbols and for
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each sound, collect five words in which it occurs [p, b, f, v, θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ, dʒ, ʈʃ, s, z].
How is each of these sounds spelt?
Activity 4.6
1. Having studied the 24 English consonant sounds in the table above and the examples
given, practise pronouncing each consonant sounds in words or sentences by
observing the differences between /p/ and /b/. The words in the following table may
help you.
/b/ /p/
big pig

LY
bad pad
back pack

N
ben pen
balm palm

O
bin pin
bond pond
SE
2. For more fun and fluency, read the following sentences aloud, paying attention to
the italicised words:
U
(a) I saw a big pig.
(b) I don’t write on a bad pad.
E

(c) Come back and pack.

(d) Ben has a new pen.
N

(e) She was holding balm in her palm.

LI

(f) I dropped a pin into a bin.

(g) Fish keepers form bonds with their ponds.
N

Activity 4.7
O

Notice the difference in pronunciation between the sounds /t/ and /d/. Read the words
in the table below aloud and then read the sentences that follow, paying attention to the
R

italicised words.
/t/ /d/
FO

ten den
tat dad
tin din
teal deal
toe doe

(a) Ten lions were standing near the den.

(b) My dad dislikes tat.
(c) A tin makes din when it is hit.

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FOR
(d) Selling teal was his business ONLINE USE ONLY
deal.
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(e) I stood on my toes to see the does from a distance.
Activity 4.8
Study the difference in pronunciation between the sounds /f/ and /v/; and then, read the
pairs of words in the table below and the sentences that follow, paying attention to the
italicised words.
/f/ /v/
feel veal
fan van
feasible visible

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foil voile
(a) I feel like eating veal.

N
(b) The fan of the van was faulty.
(c) That was feasible because everything was visible.

O
(d) He was holding a foil and a voile.
Activity 4.9
SE
In groups, read the words in the following table. Do the same for the sentences that
come after the table, paying attention to the italicised words.
U
/s/ /ʃ/
see She
sow Show
E

sore Shore
N

sip Ship
(a) She was surprised to see the sea.
LI

(b) Show us the seeds you want to sow.

(c) Because of the sore on her leg, she walked slowly on the shore.
N

(d) She could sip some juice while travelling by ship.

O

Activity 4.10
In pairs, read the following sentences aloud, paying attention to the italicised words:
R

(a) Please, come with gum.

FO

(b) Have you got a cot for your baby?

(c) A goat does not wear a coat.
(d) There is no clue about who took the glue.
Activity 4.11
Read the following tongue-twisters for fun and fluency to practise the sounds /ʤ/ and /ʧ/:
The judge can charge and judge.
He charges when he judges.
On Sunday the judge goes to church.
There, he learns how he will be charged and judged.
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Activity 4.12 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Read aloud the following pairs of words containing the sounds /ʃ/ and /ӡ/. Then, read
the sentences that follow for more practice and fun, while paying attention to the words
that contain sounds /ʃ/ and /ӡ/.
/ʃ/ /ӡ/
pressure pleasure
omission provision
mission vision
deletion elision

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introduction intrusion

(a) You can’t have pleasure when you have pressure.

N
(b) There was an omission in the names of the people chosen for water provision.
(c) Missions and visions define companies.

O
(d) Deletion and elision do not mean the same.
(e) The introduction talked about the intrusion.

Activity 4.13
SE
Read aloud the following sentences containing the sounds /θ/ and /ð/. Repeat and
U
increase your reading speed until you can read fluently. Pay attention to the correct
pronunciation of the sounds /θ/ and /ð/.
E

(a) Thirty students with thirsty throats find things to drink.

N

(b) The first thing that they think of this time is this.
(c) Thanks for the theories that believe that there are two things there.
LI

(d) These things disappear sooner than you think.

(e) My thumb is too thick to flick this thing this time.
N

(f) Thanks for the things you said about me that day.
O

(g) I think something is wrong with this thing this time.

Activity 4.14
R

Now contrast the words in the following table. Identify those containing /θ/ and those
FO

containing /ð/.
breathe breath
clothe cloth
mouth (verb) mouth (noun)
bathe bath
teethe teeth

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Activity 4.15 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the sounds /n/ and /ŋ/. Then
identify the words with sounds /n/ and /ŋ/. Note that some words contain both sounds
/n/ and /ŋ/ as in the word ‘nothing’.
(a) I know nothing about snow.
(b) Don’t hang the ring next to the wrong thong.
(c) None of the nuns sings the wrong song.
(d) No one among us wore a golden ring.
(e) Singing and eating at once is challenging.
(f) There is no need to light a night light on a light night like tonight.

LY
(g) The ringing, swinging, singing singers sang winning songs.

Activity 4.16

N
1. Carefully, read aloud the following sentences with words containing the sound /m/.

O
Repeat and increase your reading speed until you attain a high speed.
(a) My mum lives with Mary.
(b) Mary said, “Merry Christmas, mum!”
(c) Many men marry women with merry eyes.
SE
2. How flexible is your mouth in pronouncing sound /m/ in the sentences?
U
Activity 4.17
1. Read aloud the following tongue-twisterss containing the sound /w/. Increase your
E

speed gradually until you reach the highest speed possible.

N

(a) I wish to wish the wish you wish to wish. If you wish to wish the wish the witch
wishes, I won’t wish the wish you wish to wish.
LI

(b) Watch out. We don’t wash the watch. Why does Wosho want to wash the watch?
N

2. How flexible is your mouth in pronouncing sound /w/ as you increase the reading
speed? Repeat reading the sentences while increasing gradually your reading speed
O

to gain fluency in pronouncing sound /w/.

R

Activity 4.18
FO

Read aloud the following expressions containing the sounds /l/ and /r/. Increase
your speed until you read them at a high speed. Pay attention to the difference in
pronunciation between sounds /l/ and /r/.
(a) yellow lorry, blue lorry
(b) Rulers ruled rudely and ruthlessly.
(c) Lily really enjoys reading leading readers.
(d) Read one reader on the leading reading list.
(e) I’ll be really pleased with Lily’s real work.
(f) The children rarely rested during the spring break.

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Activity 4.19 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Read the following sentences aloud to practise pronunciation of the sound /h/. Repeat
reading to gain fluency.
(a) Herman saw a huge hyena on the hill.
(b) Humility and humour help him.
(c) He’s not on the who’s who list.
(d) There’s no hope at home.

Activity 4.20
Read the following pairs of words aloud. Then, identify the words containing the sound

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/z/ and those containing the sound /s/. Read the sentences that come after the table
for fun and for gaining more fluency, while paying attention to the words containing
sounds /z/ and /s/.

N
lose loose

O
seize cease
zoo sue
plays
rise
scissors
SE
place
rice
jesus
pizza caesar
U
cups cubs
cause course
E

(a) Your team will lose the game because your players are loose.
N

(b) The police seized the gun from the criminal to end the violence.
LI

(c) They will sue the zoo owner for breaching the law.
(d) A child is playing in this place.
N

(e) There is a rise in the price of rice.

(f) Scissors were there at the time of building Fort Jesus.
O

(g) Caesar didn’t eat pizza.

(h) Cubs don’t use cups.
R

Activity 4.21
FO

Read aloud the words with the sounds /j/ and /ʤ/ in the following table and then read
the sentences that follow. Pay attention to the words containing sounds /j/ and /ʤ/.
young junk
youth juice
yet jet
yob job
yell jell

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(a) The young should not eatFOR

junkONLINE
food. USE ONLY
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(b) The youth like juice.
(c) The jet is not yet gone.
(d) Normally yobs have no jobs.
(e) They yell when things don’t jell.

Activity 4.22
1. Use phonetic symbols to indicate the first consonant sound for each of the following
words:
(a) psychology

LY
(b) schedule
(c) ewe
(d) useful

N
(e) gym
(f) knock

O
(g) censor
(h) cup
(i) weather
(j) thorough
SE
U
2. Identify the last consonant sound in each of the following words:
(a) socks
(b) bananas
E

(c) switch
N

(d) scythe
(e) growth
LI

(f) release
(g) decrease
N

(h) looked
O

(i) beans
(j) forge
R

Understanding the vowel sounds

FO

English, according to the British R.P., operates on a system of 20 distinctive vowel units
or phonemes. These vowels can be divided into two broad categories - pure vowels or
monophthongs, that is, vowels that do not change in quality even when they are made
long and diphthongs, that is, vowels in the production of which there is a glide from one
quality to another within the same syllable.

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Activity 4.23 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Answer the following questions:
(a) How many English vowels do you know?
(b) What are short and long vowels sounds?
(c) Are there any English words that you know which have no vowels sounds?
Among pure English vowels, some are relatively long and the symbols for them have a
mark /:/ to indicate length. The symbols for diphthongs consist of two letters, each one
to indicate the vowel quality at the beginning, and the other, indicates the vowel quality
towards which the glide takes place. A list of vowel phonemes is provided below.

LY
S/N Symbol Word Word in phonetic transcription
1. /i:/ seat /si:t/

N
2. /ɪ/ sit /sɪt/
3. /u:/ fool /fu:l/

O
4. /ʊ/ full /fʊl/
5. /ɜ:/ bird /bɜ:d/
6.
7.
/e/
/ɔ:/
set
caught, court
SE/set/
/kɔ:t/
U
8. /ɒ/ cot /kɒt/
9. /ɑ:/ cart /kɑ:t/
E

10. /æ/ sat /sæt/

11. /ʌ/ cup /kʌp/
N

12. /ə/ ago /ə'gəʊ/

LI

13. /aɪ/ buy /baɪ/

14. /eɪ/ play /pleɪ/
N

15. /əʊ/ go /gəʊ/

O

16. /aʊ/ cow /kaʊ/

17. /eə/ care /keə/
R

18. /ɪə/ here /hɪə/

19. /ɔɪ/ boy /bɔɪ/
FO

20. /ʊə/ poor /pʊə/

However, it should be noted that, the symbols used for R.P. vowel phonemes vary from
one book to another. This book uses symbols adopted from the Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English.

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Pronouncing English monophthongs
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Activity 4.24

Study the following table containing English vowel sounds and provide five other
examples of words with similar vowels.

Vowel sound Examples

/i:/ need, keep, deep, eat, meat, thief, chief, receive, conceive
/ɪ/ if, think, link, English, example

LY
/ʊ/ put, would, look, book
/u:/ too, you, new, who, rude, refuse

N
/e/ get, when, well, said, says, dead
/ə/ the, about, alone, along

O
/ɜ:/ verb, word, work, learn, heard, burn, turn, firm, bird
/ɔ:/
walk, talk, saw, law
SE
more, fore, four, court, call, all, Paul, August, war, ward,

/æ/ man, sad, bad, bag, sand, latter, batter

U
/ʌ/ but, cup, one, brother, mother, courage, rough
E

/ɑ:/ start, mark, ask, task, craft, after, fast, last, class, grass
/ɒ/ long, on, pot, mop
N
LI

Distinguishing vowel sounds in English words

N

Activity 4.25
O

1. Read aloud the following pairs of words which contain the sounds /i:/ and /ɪ/. Note
that a vowel phoneme with the mark /:/ is a long one. Identify the words containing
short and long vowels and then group them based on words containing the sounds
R

/i:/ and /ɪ/.

FO

live leave
cheap chip
sip seep
weep whip
deed did
hip heap

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FOR
2. Read the following sentences ONLINE
aloud, whileUSE ONLY
paying attention to the words containing
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the sounds /i:/ and /ɪ/:
(a) You stop to live when you leave the earth.
(b) Chips are cheap.
(c) He was sipping juice from a seeping container.
(d) They don’t weep even when you whip them.
(e) Good deeds didn’t make any difference.
(f) He hurt his hip when he fell near the rubbish heap.
Activity 4.26
Read the following sentences aloud and identify the vowel sounds (/ʊ/ and /u:/) in the

LY
italicised words:
(a) Reena was holding a book and a broom.

N
(b) We cook food when we want.
(c) Don’t pull your friend into a pool.

O
(d) You can’t fool people fully.
(e) You need wood to cook food.
(f) We put our boots into the room. SE
Activity 4.27
U
1. Read aloud the words in the textbox below and identify the letters representing the
sounds /e/ and /ɜ:/ and then put together words which contain sound /e/ and those
E

containing sound /ɜ:/.

N

ten turn bed bird

head heard wealth worth
LI

2. Read aloud the following sentences, focusing on the words which contain the
N

sounds /e/ and /ɜ:/:

O

(a) He turns ten next months.

(b) I saw a bird on the bed.
R

(c) We heard that his head was injured.

(d) Her wealth was worth a million dollars.
FO

Activity 4.28
Read the following words in the textbox and group them based on the sounds /ɔ:/ and
/ɒ/.

form board what saw fall pot port

mourn bob small warm ball mall mop

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Activity 4.29 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

DO NOT DUPLICATE
Pronounce the words in the textbox below and group them based on the words containing
sound /æ/ and those containing sound /ɑ:/.
mat mart pat part sat
draft map grasp cap carp

Activity 4.30
Read aloud the following pairs of words and identify the vowel sounds /ʌ / and /ɑ:/ in

LY
each pair.
rough laugh
tusk task

N
lover larva

O
come calm
cover carve
cuff calf SE
It is equally important to learn where monophthongs like /ʌ / and /ɑ:/ appear in a word.
U
The following table provides details of such vowels.
Target vowel Letters involved Sample word Transcription
E

sound
N

sun /sʌn/
u cut /kʌt/
LI

scud /skʌd/
son /sʌn/
N

o come /kʌm/
O

/ʌ / London /lʌndʌn/
country /kʌntrɪ/
R

ou young /jʌŋ/
FO

southern /sʌðən/
oo blood /blʌd/
flood /flʌd/
oe does /dʌz/

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

card
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/kɑ:d/
ar part /pɑ:t/
car /kɑ:/
ear heart /hɑ:t/
/ɑ:/ hearth /hɑ:θ/
palm /pɑ:m/
al calm /kɑ:m/
half /hɑ:f/
aunt /ɑ:nt/
au

LY
laugh /lɑ:f/

Activity 4.31

N
1. Read silently the following words while focusing on the final vowel /ə/. Then write

O
five other words with the sound /ə/.
centre porter banana
savannah SE
particular father
U
2. Write the phonetic symbol of the vowel sound found in each of the following sets of
words:
E

(a) duff, come, tough

(b) ask, mask, last, past
N

(c) learn, term, burn

LI

(d) caw, fall, mourn, warn

(e) pan, bat, mat, pad
N

(f) what, wad, cot

(g) dead, wealth, weather
O

(h) dean, team, heat

3. Write the phonetic symbol of the last vowel in each of the following sets of words:
R

(a) fur, purr, err

(b) sure, fore, saw
FO

(c) smaller, manta, server

(d) far, mar, star
(e) fee, she, tea
4. Write the phonetic symbol of the first vowel in each of the following sets of words:
(a) all, awful, almost
(b) art, almond, arms
(c) earn, urge
(d) aloud, along, atomic

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

Pronouncing English diphthongs
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You have just seen that monophthongs, as a category of English vowels, are pure
vowels that do not change quality even when they are made long. The second category
constitutes what are technically called diphthongs. Diphthongs are two vowels which
are put together to form a single vowel. For example, /aɪ/ is a diphthong which is found
in words such as tie, pie, try and time. This type of vowel is formed when the vowels /a/
and /ɪ/ are put together and pronounced as a single vowel. English has eight diphthongs,
namely /aɪ/, /eɪ/, /əʊ/, /aʊ/, /eə/, /ɪə/, /ɔɪ/ and /ʊə/.

Activity 4.32

LY
Study the table below, paying attention to the example words given in order to establish
the sound patterns.

N
Diphthongs and examples
/aɪ/ cry, my, like, fine, bright, flight

O
/eɪ bake, face, rain, pain, lay, stay, eight, weight, break
/əʊ/ SE
in go, no, slow, snow, loan, poach, though, toe, hoe
/aʊ/ bound, found, house
U
/eə/ pair, lair, chair, wear, bear, bare, fare
/ɪə/ career, deer, fear, near, here
E

/ɔɪ/ boy, toy, oil, point, voice

N

/ʊə/ pure, sure, tour,

LI
N

Activity 4.33
O

1. Read aloud the following sentences, which contain words with the vowels /aɪ/
and /eɪ/. Identify the vowel sounds in each of the italicised words by writing their
phonetic symbols.
R

(a) Why does it weigh less?

FO

(b) If you stay longer, you will get sty.

(c) You catch fish when it bites your bait.
(d) When she buys a pie she pays.
(e) She may fail to see the file as it is hidden.

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FOR ONLINE
2. Study the words in the following USE ONLY
table carefully and then put a tick to indicate the
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appropriate sound contained in each word.
words sounds words sounds
/əʊ/ /aʊ/ /əʊ/ /aʊ/
house go
sound found
sew so
cow hollow
about no

LY
now allow
doubt grow
toe tomorrow

N
O
3. Read the following sentences containing the sounds /eə/ and /ɪə/ aloud and identify
the vowel sounds in each of the italicised words by writing their phonetic symbols:
(a) They don’t fear to shear the sheep.
(b) They share weird ideas.
(c) Don’t dare, my dear.
SE
(d) The fare charged wasn’t fair.
U
(e) The peers sat in pairs.
(f) A bear doesn’t take beer like humans.
E

(g) A hare lives here.

N

(h) The chair near the wall is mine.

(i) What the mayor said was sheer politics.
LI

4. Read aloud the following sentences containing the vowels /ɔɪ/ and /ʊə/; and identify
N

the diphthongs in each of the italicised words by writing their phonetic symbols.
O

(a) There is a point in the saying prevention is better than cure.

(b) We enjoy life when we tour.
(c) Employment and deployment are different words.
R

(d) That boy has a deep voice.

FO

(e) We are not sure about the poor.

5. Identify vowel sounds in each of the following sets of words:

(a) wand, want, what
(b) page, cage, whale, sale
(c) warm, pause, course
(d) fare, pair, pare, dare
(e) road, code, hope

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6. Pronounce each of the words FORinONLINE USE ONLY

the following sets of words, and write down the
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word in the set that is pronounced differently.
(a) knew, knee, new
(b) no, naw, gnaw
(c) so, saw, sew
(d) dew, do, due
(e) war, wall, wore
(f) by, bay, buy

Transcribing words

LY
You have practised pronouncing different English sounds. Now you will use
phonetic symbols to transcribe words into their constituent sounds. The phonological
representation of the sounds contained in different words is referred to as transcription.

N
Specifically, you will be doing phonemic transcriptions. This activity involves enclosing
sounds in slashes (/ /) to represent phonemic transcription. Now start the practice.

O
Activity 4.34
SE
1. Study the words below and observe their transcription.
(a) mat /mæt/
(b) boat /bəʊt/
U
(c) hunter /hʌntə/
(d) port /pɔːt/
E

(e) footer /fʊtə/

N

2. Transcribe the following words phonemically:

LI

(a) goat
(b) home
N

(c) pause
(d) stall
O

(e) sugar
(f) words
R

(g) banker
(h) classroom
FO

(i) hold
(j) yacht
(k) date
(l) danger
(m) shoulder
(n) mango
(o) pawpaw

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FOR
3. Transcribe other 20 words of ONLINE
your choiceUSE ONLY
phonemically.
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4. Write the following words in ordinary spelling:
(a) /diːl/
(b) /bɔːl/
(c) /meʒə/
(d) /nʌmbə/
(e) /ʤɒbz/
(f) /briːz/
(g) /blækbɔːd/
(h) /flaɪ/

LY
(i) /fəʊtəʊ/
(j) /bʌtə/

N
Talking about English syllables

O
In language, sounds are not used in isolation. Rather, individual sounds are combined
to form larger units. The next unit after the phoneme is the syllable. The syllable is
made of either a vowel alone or a vowel combined with one consonant or more. It is
SE
pronounced as a single unit in a particular word. In short, the number of vowels in
the word determines the number of syllables. For example, the word tall contains one
U
syllable as it has a single unit of pronunciation with a single vowel sound.

Activity 4.35
E

1. Identify the number of vowels in each of the following words:

N

(a) bananas
LI

(b) partner
(c) beauty
N

(d) launch
(e) pronounce
O

2. Study the following words which have been divided into their constituent syllables:
(a) pip-er
R

(b) in-ner
(c) wa-ter
FO

(d) to-ma-to
(e) wit-ness
3. Divide the following words into their constituent syllables:
(a) formula
(b) decide
(c) doctor
(d) Hindu
(e) assimilate

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Knowing how to split words into FORsyllables

ONLINE USE ONLYa language learner to chunk up
can help
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bigger words into more manageable pieces. This helps the learner to read longer and
more difficult words, as well as unfamiliar words. Dividing word into syllables also
helps the learner to figure out what the vowel sound will be. When a language learner
comes accross unfamiliar words, breaking them up into syllables can help him/her to
predict what the vowel sound will be based on the patterns he/she sees in the word. The
following procedures will help you to divide words into their syllables:
(i) Divide a word into its syllables according to its pronunciation. Remember that each
syllable is pronounced with a single breath. The following examples illustrate this
point:

LY
• essential à es-sen-tial
• government à gov-ern-ment

N
(ii) If a word contains two consonants occurring between two vowels or if it contains
double consonants, divide the word into syllables by splitting the two consonants.

O
Study the following examples:
• margin àmar-gin
• progress àprog-ress
• supper àsup-per
SE
U
(iii) Prefixes and suffixes usually make syllables. Study the following examples:
Prefixes
• unkind à un-kind
E

• displease à dis-please
N

• replace à re-place
LI

Suffixes
• kindly à kind-ly
N

• likely à like-ly
O

• helpless à help-less

(iv) Do not divide a single syllable word.

R
FO

The structure of a syllable

Every syllable consists of a vowel, which acts as the nucleus of the syllable. The part
preceding the nucleus is called an onset and the part after the nucleus is called a coda.
A syllable can consist of more than one consonant, but a consonant cannot stand alone
as a syllable. Syllables are of two main types: closed syllables and open syllables. A
closed syllable consists of one vowel and ends with a consonant; for example, girl /
gɜ:l/, seen /si:n/, card /kɑ:d/ and part /pɑ:t/. Besides, an open syllable contains one
vowel sound, and the vowel occurs at the end of the syllable as in see /si:/, so /səʊ/, no
/nəʊ/, saw /sɔː/ and pay /pei/.

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FOR ONLINE
The following table shows the possible USE ONLY
structures of an English syllable:
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Syllable structure Example of a word with such a syllable structure
V eye /aɪ/, ear /ɪə/
VC art /ɑ:t/,
CV car /kɑ:/
CVC cat /kæt/
CCV sky /skaɪ/
CCCVC straight /streɪt/
CCCVCC strings /strɪŋz/

LY
CCCVCCC strands /strændz/
VCCCC empts /empts/
CVCCCC texts /teksts/

N
CCVCCCC twelfths /twelfθs/

O
CCVCCC blanks /blæŋks/
CCVCC blooms /blu:mz/
CVCC
VCC
bags
act
/bægz/
/ækt/
SE
U
Placing stress on words
When a word has more than one syllable, the syllables are not pronounced with the
E

same energy. There will always be one syllable that stands out from the others. That
syllable is normally longer and louder than the other syllables in the word. The syllable
N

is said to carry stress. In the word banana, for example, stress is on the second syllable.
LI

In that case, the second ‘na’ is pronounced with more energy than the other syllables in
the word. Stress is marked using the symbol (ˈ). This symbol is referred to as the stress
N

mark. Therefore, the stressed syllable in the word ‘banana’ is marked as ‘ba'nana’.
O

Activity 4.36
Read the words in the following table aloud, focusing on their stress.
R

ˈreject reˈject
FO

ˈsubject subˈject
ˈrecord reˈcord
ˈincrease inˈcrease
ˈdecrease deˈcrease

In Activity 4.36, you must have noticed that in English, stress is not fixed on a particular
syllable. Every word has its stressed syllable. However, there are cases when the word
class determines the stress pattern. For example, if a noun and a verb are similarly spelt,

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the noun bears stress on its firstFOR ONLINE

syllable, USEthe
while ONLY
verb bears its stress on the second
DO NOT DUPLICATE
syllable. As for the other types of words, the stress pattern is unpredictable. A thorough
observation is required to tell where the stress is placed. Fortunately, some clues may
help non-native speakers to identify the patterns.

Activity 4.37
1. Read the following sentences while focusing on the italicised words, and then
explain the effect of stress shift in a word.
(a) I will reˈport this matter immediately.
(b) The ˈreport must be written now.

LY
(c) An ˈincrease in salaries is desirable.
(d) Will the employer inˈcrease the salary this time?
(e) We have not started exˈporting peanuts.

N
(f) Our only ˈexports are minerals and coffee.

O
2. Write five pairs of sentences indicating a change of a word from one word class to
another as a result of stress shift. For example:
SE
(a) He took the ˈphotograph from a far distance.
(b) The best angle to photoˈgraph a person is to keep a short distance.
U
Stress placement in other types of words
E

As we noted earlier, English does not have predictable rules of stress for all words. For
that reason, care is needed to ensure that words are appropriately stressed.
N

Activity 4.38
LI

1. Read the following words aloud and identify the stressed syllables.
N

mother brother father

O

butter sugar teacher

R

2. Read the following words aloud while focusing on their stress.

FO

ˈsummer deˈbate addreˈssee

ˈinnocent deˈtermine obserˈvation
ˈmatter conˈdition ecoˈnomics
ˈcommerce conˈdemn matheˈmatics
ˈfamily conˈtempt experˈtise
ˈmagnet parˈticiple assassiˈnation

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FOR
Some clues on stress placement in ONLINE
words USE ONLY
DO NOT DUPLICATE
Although stress is largely unpredictable in English words, there are clues guiding a
speaker to which syllables are stressed in a word. In the following sections, you will
practise placing stress appropriately in different words.
(a) Words ending in -ate
Activity 4.39
1. Study the following sets of words and then identify the stress patterns:
A: deˈbate, narˈrate, eˈstate
B: asˈsimilate, ˈimitate, eˈmancipate

LY
Observation has shown that the two-syllable words (disyllabic words) ending in -ate
are stressed on the second syllable. In contrast, words with more than two syllables

N
which end in -ate are stressed on the third syllable from the end.

O
2. Place stress on appropriate syllables for each of the following words:
(a) congratulate
(b) associate
(c) appropriate
SE
(d) moderate
U
(e) adequate
(f) animate
(g) appreciate
E

(h) dedicate
N
LI

(b) Words ending in -ee, -eer/-ier

N

Activity 4.40
O

1. Read the following words aloud, focusing on how they are stressed: career,
brigadier, marketeer and millionaire. You may have noticed that, words ending
in -ee, -eer and -ier are stressed on the final syllable, as indicated here: caˈreer,
R

brigaˈdier, markeˈteer and millioˈnaire

FO

2. Use the stress mark to show the syllables that are stressed in the following words.
Confirm your answers by consulting a dictionary such as Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary or Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.
(a) interviewee
(b) appointee
(c) doctrinaire
(d) guarantee
(e) payee

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(c) Words ending in -ental FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Activity 4.41
1. Read the following words aloud, focusing on the stressed syllables:
ornaˈmental fundaˈmental acciˈdental
2. Assign stress to each of the following words correctly to indicate stressed syllables:
(a) departmental
(b) instrumental
(c) monumental
(d) developmental

LY
(e) governmental
What have you noticed in the words above? You may have probably noticed that, the

N
last syllable of the words ending in -ental, is stressed. Use a dictionary to find other
words ending in -ental and study the stressed syllable.

O
(d) Words ending in -ial, -ian, -ion
Activity 4.42
SE
1. Pair up with your fellow student and read the following words aloud and then, mark
stress correctly:
U
(a) participation
(b) universal
(c) provincial
E

(d) provisional
N

2. Use the dictionary to study the placement of stress in the words ending -ial, -ian,
-ion. You may have probably noticed that, the last syllable of the words ending in
LI

-ial, -ian, -ion is stressed, as in organisaˈtion, meˈdian and coloˈnial.

N

Word endings that do not shift stress positioning

O

The suffixes -ance, -ment, -dom, -ness, -ter, -er/or, -ive, -ly, -ism, -ize, -fy, -ist, -ful and
-less do not shift the position of stress when they are attached to words. That means
R

the stress-bearing syllables remain intact despite the addition of these suffixes. For
example, ˈchiefdom, ˈamazement, ˈreadiness and ˈeditor.
FO

Activity 4.43
Mark stress on each of the italicised words in the following sentences:
(a) Some of us tend to exaggerate the participation of students in classroom
activities.
(b) Students’ involvement in classroom activities is controversial for beginner
classes.
(c) To classify things is what biologists do
(d) Freedom fighters will always be remembered for their contribution.

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 Using pronunciation and prosodic features correctly

(e) We actively participatedFOR ONLINE

in that USE ONLY
controversial event.
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(f) Some useful comments were made during the presentation.
(g) Simplifying things gives hope.
(h) Peter and Paul are brothers.
(i) Sometimes colonialism is given as an excuse for our underdevelopment.
(j) Socialists are decreasing nowadays.

Intonation
When we produce sentences, our pitch varies. Sometimes the pitch is high and at other
times it is low. That is what constitutes intonation - it is the melody of the sentence.

LY
Intonation is created by changes in the pitch of the voice (the voice goes higher and
lower; remains on the same level; rises or falls) by sentence stress (strong stress on
important words; weak stress or no stress on less important words) and by rhythm

N
(stressed syllables occur at more or less equal intervals). Observe the following
examples:

O
I didn’t say John stole my book.
I didn’t say John stole my book. SE
I didn’t say John stole my book.
I didn’t say John stole my book.
U
I didn’t say John stole my book.
I didn’t say John stole my book.
E

I didn’t say John stole my book.

N

Intonation is part and parcel of every language. However, languages differ in their
LI

intonation patterns. You sound natural when you pronounce sentences with appropriate
intonation. This section introduces you to intonation.
N

Activity 4.44
O

Study the following utterances and then say whether they are pronounced with a rising
or falling tone.
R

A: Excuse me!
B: Yes?
FO

A: I want to post this letter, please!

In the utterances above, you must have noticed that there is a rising pitch. Why? The
first utterance ‘Excuse me!’ is intended to attract attention. So, it needs a rising tone.
The second utterance ‘Yes?’ is intended to make the speaker repeat or clarify what he
has just said. That also needs a rising tone. The third utterance ‘I want to post this letter,
please!’ seems to have two tones: a falling tone and a rising tone. The utterance starts
with a falling tone and ends with a rising tone. The utterance is intended to indicate a
statement and a request at the same time.

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FOR ONLINE
In this book, the rising tone is marked by and USEtheONLY
falling tone is marked by . Rising-
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falling tone is marked by and the falling-rising tone is marked by . You shall
practise these different tones as you continue reading and performing the activities
provided in this section.

Falling tone ( )
A falling intonation or downward intonation pattern simply means that the pitch of
the voice drops down. For example, if I am making a statement or an exclamation,
“That’s wonderful!”, is one incidence that I would use a falling intonation. Command
is another situation that one would say: “Put that down!”

LY
Activity 4.45
1. Read the following sentences aloud with a falling tone:

N
a) Children are sleeping.

O
b) My brother left yesterday.
c) The capital city of Tanzania is Do doma.
d) What are you doing? SE
2. Read the following sentences and say what communicative role each one plays:
U
(a) Dar es Salaam is a very big city.
(b) What can I do?
E

(c) Open the door.

(d) That’s marvellous!
N

(e) You’ll call me, won’t you?

LI

You must have noticed that the falling tone plays several roles. First, it is used in
complete statements about which speakers are sure. Second, the falling tone is used in
N

wh-questions. Third, the falling tone is used in giving commands and orders. It is also
O

used in exclamations. Finally, it is used in forming tag questions.

Activity 4.46
R

Construct five sentences to express the following instructions and then read each
FO

sentence aloud with an appropriate tone:

(a) exclamations
(b) tag questions
(c) wh-questions
(d) commands/orders
(e) definite statements

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Rising Tone ( ) FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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A rising intonation pattern is a rise in the human voice. It is a change in pitch; a glide
in the pitch of the voice upwards. We tend to use this intonation when we are asking
questions. So, the pitch of our voice tends to go up. For example, “When does the
meeting start?” ‘...start?’ rises up; it comes up in the voice. “Would you like a cup of
tea?” ‘...tea?’ rises up.
Activity 4.47
Read the following utterances aloud while focusing on the tone:
(a) Will your brother visit you at school?

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(b) Can Mary cook cha patti?
(c) Did James come?

N
(d) Yes?

O
All the four utterances above contain the rising tone. Another incidence in which we
would use this upward or rising intonation would be on listing. For example, if I am
saying: “I’d like some eggs, some milk, some cheese and some bread.” Each item is
SE
spoken with a rising intonation and we would use a falling intonation on ‘bread’ to
indicate that we have finished the list.
U
Uses of the rising tone
E

Activity 4.48
N

Carefully study the following sentences and identify the communicative role of the
rising tone in each:
LI

(a) Do animals have language?

N

(b) Mary got married?

(c) I’ll see you later/if you’ll be present.
O

(d) If I get money … (I’ll be happy)

(e) Pass me the salt please.
R

(f) Give me that book.

FO

Careful observation will help you to realise that the rising tone plays a variety of
roles. First, it is used to ask questions. Second, the tone is used in statements intended
to be questions. In the examples above, (b) is essentially a statement that is turned
into a question by the rising tone. Third, the tone is used in statements made as an
afterthought. Sentence (c) falls into this category. Fourth the tone is used in requests.
Read example (e) again. Fifth, the tone is also used in commands that are intended to
be requests. Read example (f).

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Activity 4.49
Read the following utterances aloud while observing the tone used:
(a) If you call me to morrow… (I’ll be available)
(b) Don’t tell me that.
(c) Unless you tell the truth… (you’ll face the consequences)

Uses of the falling-rising tone

Activity 4.50

LY
Read the following expressions carrying the falling-rising tone. Identify their
communicative roles.
(a) If you come early…. (You’ll find me at home).

N
(b) They are looking for you. Watch out.

O
(c) (She’s your sister) My niece.
(d) Don’t tell him please.
SE
You must have realised that the falling-rising tone plays a number of communicative
roles. First, it is used in incomplete sentences leading to another tone group. The first
expression is an instance of an incomplete statement ending with a falling-rising tone.
U
Another communicative role of the falling-rising tone is to express a warning or concern.
Correcting the information received is yet another role of the falling-rising tone. This is
E

illustrated by example (c). Yet, another communicative role of the falling-rising tone is
N

to express requests. Read example (d) above. Finally, the falling-rising tone is used to
express the speaker’s reservation on what is being talked about. Example (e) illustrates
LI

this point.
N

Activity 4.51
Make two sentences with a falling-rising tone to express each of the following situations:
O

(a) expressing an incomplete sentence

(b) expressing reservation on something
R

(c) expressing a warning or concern

FO

(d) expressing a pleading request

(e) correcting what somebody has just said

Rising-falling tone ( )
Activity 4.52
(a) Wow! This is a wonderful day.
(b) He’ll do the examination. Of course.

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Activity 4.53
Read the following expressions aloud, and identify the communicative role of each:
(a) A: Would you like some tea? B: Of course.
(b) A: Will you join me for a walk. B: Yes.
(c) How handsome you are!
(d) What were you doing?

You are likely to have noticed that the rising-falling tone plays various communicative
roles. The first role is to express enthusiastic agreement. Read example (a) above. The

LY
second is to express sarcasm and irony. This is illustrated by example (c). It is also used
to express suspicion.

N
Activity 4.54

O
Construct three sentences for each of the following communicative roles:
(a) expressing mockery and suspicion
(b) expressing sarcasm and irony
(c) expressing enthusiastic agreement
SE
U
Revision 3. Transcribe the following words
1. What are the communicative roles of phonemically:
E

the following? (a) hearse

(a) a falling tone (b) horse
N

(b) a rising tone (c) gnaw

LI

(c) a falling-rising tone (d) jaw

(d) a rising-falling tone (e) mortar
N

2. Provide two examples of words that (f) hold

are represented by the following (g) scope
O

vowel sounds. The examples should (h) gap

not be taken from this book. (i) minimum
R

(a) /ʌ/ (j) wonder

(b) /æ/ 4. Use IPA symbols to identify the last
FO

(c) /ʊ/ phoneme in each of the following

(d) /ɔ:/ words:
(e) /ɪ/ (a) climb
(f) /əʊ/ (b) doubt
(g) /aɪ/ (c) box
(h) /ɜ:/ (d) mangoes
(i) /ʊə/ (e) fur
(j) /eɪ/ (f) colour

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(g) draw
(h) chips
(i) French
(j) wish
5. Mark stress on appropriate syllables for each of the following words:
(a) nominate
(b) detainee
(c) identify
(d) motivate

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(e) ornamental
(f) examine
(g) summit

N
(h) magnificent
(i) blackboard

O
(j) reserve
6. Transcribe the following pairs of words to show how they differ in pronunciation:
(a) ship and sheep
(b) peat and pit
SE
(c) peace and peas
U
(d) man and men
(e) cape and cap
E

(f) shoe and zoo

(g) march and much
N

(h) goat and got

LI

(i) pan and pen

(j) soon and son
N
O

Reflection
1. What did you find interesting in this chapter?
R

2. How the information presented in this chapter has helped you to use
FO

pronunciation and prosodic feature in speech correctly?

3. If you were to assess yourself, would you say your pronunciation has improved?
Why would you say that?

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Chapter DO NOT DUPLICATE

Five Applying basic concepts of

syntax
Introduction

Like other languages, English is made up of words. When words are combined, they

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form larger units. The units are arranged in a particular order to form phrases,
clauses and sentences. If one violates the word order rules, the sentences made will
be ungrammatical. Similarly, if morphological rules are violated, the sentences

N
made will be wrongly structured. In this chapter, you will learn some basic syntactic
concepts and how to apply them in different contexts. You will also do various

O
activities to practise constructing various sentences by observing grammatical rules
that govern the English language in both speech and writing. The competencies
SE
developed from reading this chapter will enable you to construct and use correct
grammatical English sentences.
U
Syntax and language rules
All human languages have word order systems which enable users to communicate
E

correctly. Words are arranged into larger units (Sound word phrase
N

clause/sentence) based on the rules that govern the arrangement. The study
of how words are ordered in a language is technically referred to as syntax. In this
LI

chapter, you will learn how to combine words into phrases, clauses and sentences in
the English language. Specifically, you will learn about noun phrases, verb phrases and
N

prepositional phrases, and how the mastery of these concepts facilitates communication.
O

You will also learn about clauses and different types of sentences, as used in everyday
communication. You will notice that English has a unique way of ordering words into
larger units. Mastery of these rules will help you use English correctly.
R

Activity 5.1
FO

Study the following combinations of word groups and do answer the question that
follow:
(i) boy good
(ii) tall man
(iii) sharp minds
(iv) grass tall
(v) intelligent boy

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(vi) language international FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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(vii) vegetables green
(viii) hair dark
(ix) blue eyes
(x) dress red
(a) Identify correct and incorrect combinations; then,
(b) Explain why some combinations are correct while others are not.

Why are some of the word combinations above incorrect? Some of the combinations

LY
above are incorrect because word ordering is rule-governed, but the rules have been
violated. As a matter of principle, every word occupies a particular position in a
group. If the positions are changed, the construction becomes incorrect. Good boy, for

N
example, is acceptable in English but *boy good is not. In sentences, words are also
ordered by following certain rules. In English, sentences are constructed by ordering

O
noun/pronoun + verb + other words. For example, Kiponda works for a big hotel.

SE
It is grammatically correct to say, “We are learning English grammar at the moment.”
The words in this sentence are fixed in terms of position, except for the word group
‘at the moment’, which can move to the beginning of the sentence as follows: “At
U
the moment, we are learning English grammar.” A slight change in word order is also
realised through questions. For example, the sentence we have just read can be changed
into a question and thus becomes “Are we learning English grammar at the moment?”
E

In the subsequent sections, you will learn how different words are ordered.
N

Combining words into phrases

LI

The study of English syntax is the study of the rules which generate an infinite number
of grammatical sentences. These rules can be inferred from the observation of English
N

data. In forming grammatical sentences, we start from words. Words then form larger
O

constituents (phrases); and phrases are combined to form ‘clauses’. A phrase is a group
of interrelated words that functions as a grammatical unit whereas a clause is part of a
R

well-formed sentence. In the previous chapter, you learned different processes used to
form new words. In this chapter, you will learn the rules that govern the generation of
FO

an infinite number of grammatical sentences.

In combining words to form phrases, one word becomes the head and controls the
others, which are called modifiers. A head word may have more than one modifier,
while others may not have modifiers. For example, in the phrase ‘the large dog’, the
word ‘dog’ is the head, and ‘the’ and ‘large’ are its modifiers. In the phrase ‘barked
loudly’, the word ‘barked’ is the head and ‘loudly’ the modifier. The following section
focuses on word orders in a phrase and clause.

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(a) Noun phrases FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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A noun phrase (NP) is a group of interrelated words whose head word is a noun or
pronoun. Noun phrases function in a sentence as nouns, that means, a noun phrase
can be replaced with a single word functioning as a noun or pronoun. For example,
“The lady is my aunt.” “Neema is my aunt” or “She is my aunt.”

Activity 5.2

Study the following examples and answer the questions that follow.

LY
(a) The girl is my sister.
(b) The young girl is my sister.

N
(c) The beautiful young girl is my sister.

O
(d) The beautiful young girl in the garden is my sister.
(e) The beautiful young girl who is playing in the garden is my sister.

Exercise
SE
1. What is the common word in the underlined groups of words above?
U
2. What will happen if the common word is removed?
E

3. What word can you use to replace all the underlined words in each
N

construction?
LI

Hopefully, you have discovered that all the underlined parts of sentences have a noun as
N

the head word, and other words are used to modify the noun. They express the qualities
O

of the person represented by the noun ‘girl’. The determiners such as the article ‘the’
come first. They are followed by the adjective(s) and the noun itself. Constructions
such as prepositional phrases (PPs) can occur after the noun. These grouped words
R

constitute a noun phrase (NP). All the modifiers that appear before the noun are known
FO

as pre-modifiers, while those which appear after the noun are post-modifiers. See the
following figure:

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FORyoung
The beautiful ONLINE USE
lady in ONLY
red shoes is my sister Sarah
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NP

Pre-modifier Head (N) Post-modifier

Determiner Adjectives Pre-positional phrases

LY
N
The beautiful young lady in red shoes

O
Pre-modifiers
In English grammar, a pre-modifier is a modifier that precedes the head of a noun
SE
phrase or word that determines the meaning of a phrase. Pre-modifiers are most often
adjectives, participles, and nouns. In addition, determiners, genitives, and numerals
precede the head and modifiers and help to specify the reference of noun phrases.
U
Activity 5.3
E

1. Rewrite the following phrases in three words without distorting their meanings. For
N

example: A student who is intelligent – An intelligent student

LI

(a) a boy who is tall

(b) a person who visits a place frequently
N

(c) a girl who is beautiful

O

(d) a pond that is small

What have you noticed in the phrases you have constructed above? You may have
R

noticed that, you have constructed noun phrases from the meanings provided. The noun
phrases which you have constructed consist of pre-modifiers and head nouns. Study
FO

the constituents of the pre-modifiers in each of the noun phrases you have constructed
above.
2. Provide well-formed noun phrases from the following groups of words by
rearranging them and then explain the constituents of each NP you have formed:
(a) women tall those
(b) that garden good
(c) students brilliant five

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FOR ONLINE
We can see that, in the two activities USE is
above, there ONLY
only one adjective that qualifies the
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noun in each construction. However, a noun phrase can have more than one adjective
at the same time, as in ‘a beautiful young lady’ or ‘a young beautiful lady’. When
working with only two adjectives, the arrangement of the adjectives will depend on
the preference of the speaker or where emphasis is put. When we move up to three
adjectives (multiple adjectives), descriptions start to either lose or seek their place in
line. Multiple adjectives in a noun phrase require a well defined order.

Activity 5.4
1. Rearrange the following words to make meaningful noun phrases

LY
(a) a blue big Japanese new car
(b) my little beautiful younger sister
(c) the long examination difficult question

N
(d) those black leather lovely new shoes
(e) a wooden new nice eating round large black table

O
If more than one adjective is used in a noun phrase as modifiers, they tend to occur
SE
in a certain order. In English, two or three adjectives modifying a noun tend to be the
usual limit. However, even more than three adjectives can be used in a noun phrase. It
should be noted that adjectives can also be formed from two or more words combined
U
by the use of hyphens (compound adjectives). If multiple adjectives are used, then the
framework below can be helpful in establishing basic guidance in creating the order of
there occurrences.
E
N

First Determiner (this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, yours, him, his, hers
they, their, our, …) or articles (a, an, the)
LI

Second Quantity (one, two, some, little, several, many, few, ...)
Third Opinion, quality, or observation (lovely, useful, cute, difficult, comfort-
N

able)
O

Fourth Physical description of size (big, little, tall, short)

Fifth Age (old, new, young, adolescent)
R

Sixth Shape (circular, irregular, triangular)

Seventh Colour (red, green, yellow)
FO

Eighth Origin or maker’s source (English, Mexican, Japanese)

Ninth Materials (cotton, metal, plastic)
Tenth Qualifier (a noun used as an adjective to modify the noun that follows;
campus activities, rocking chair, business suit)
Eleven Head Noun that the adjectives are describing (girl, man, city, activities,
chair, suit)

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FOR ONLINE
See examples of order of adjectives in a nounUSE ONLY
phrase whose head noun is bold and the
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pre-modifiers in italic.
1. A lovely-little-old-rectangular-black-Tanzanian-marble rock below the Amboni
caves was found by this Tanzanian archaeologist.
2. Scientists discovered this-beautiful-small-pink-French butterfly at the Parc Floral
in Paris.
3. Animal right activists were concerned as the product was unnecessarily tested on
an-endangered-small-young-brown-African monkey.
4. The new disease shows as an-unpleasant-big-circular-red patch on the forehead
skin of those who are infected.

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It should be noted, however that, using more than three descriptive types of adjectives
in a sequence to describe one noun or pronoun would sound a little awkward or difficult.

N
Hence, disciplined adherence to the proper order of adjectives in English is surely
worthwhile.

O
Activity 5.5
SE
1. Place each of the pre-modifiers of the noun phrases you have constructed in Activity
5.4 (a) – (e) in the respective order in the provided table.
U
S/N Determiner Quantity Opinion Size Age Shape Colour Origin Materials Qualifier Noun
(a)
E

(b)
(c)
N

(d)
(e)
LI

2. Form noun phrases using -ing for each of the following expressions. Item (a) is
N

provided as an example.
(a) the animals that hunt – the hunting animals
O

(b) farmers who grow coffee

(c) the eyes which sparkle
R

(d) drivers who over-speed

(e) families that pray
FO

(f) face which smiles

(g) water which freezes
(h) planes that fly
(i) dogs which hunt
3. Form noun phrases using the past participle form expressing attributes of nouns for
each of the following. Item (a) has been done as an example.
(a) literature that has been written - written literature
(b) potatoes that have been fried

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(c) results that have been FOR

confiONLINE
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(d) a tree that has already fallen
(e) students who have been selected
(f) a heart which is broken
(g) tasks that have been completed
We hope you have discovered that apart from adjectives, the -ing and the -ed/-en
participle forms of verbs are sometimes used to qualify nouns as pre-modifiers. This
means that words like written, spoken and selected are -ed/-en participle forms of verbs.
Post-modifiers

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Post-modifiers appear after the head noun in a noun phrase. Post-modifiers can be made
up of any of the following:
(a) prepositional phrases; for example, “The man in a yellow shirt is my uncle.”

N
(b) relative clauses; for example, “The man who came early in the morning is my
uncle.”

O
(c) appositives; for example, “My brother, a teacher at Micheweni Secondary
School, is moving to Babati.”
Preposition phrases
SE
This is a group of words consisting of a preposition and its complement. A prepositional
U
phrase modifies a noun or a verb. It consists of one preposition and the object it governs.
The object may be a noun, a gerund (a verb ending in an -ing and acting as a noun) or
a clause.
E

Example: He arrived in time.

N

Is she ready to go out with her sister?

LI

Some of the most common prepositions are to, of, about, at, before, after, by, behind,
during, for, from, in, over, under and with. It should be noted that prepositional phrases
N

sometimes act as nouns. For example,

(a) At the time of singing the national anthem is the worst time to make noise.
O

(b) After lunch is my favorite time to watch movies.

R

(c) At the end of this road is where he lives.

(d) Behind these walls lives a great man.
FO

Activity 5.6
Re-write the following expressions as phrases without distorting their meanings:
Example: the man carrying an umbrella – the man with an umbrella
(a) the woman wearing a red dress
(b) the house which has a red roof
(c) the red book which was on the shelf
(d) the student who is behind the class
(e) the old woman carrying a bottle of water in her hand

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Hopefully, you have discovered FOR ONLINE

that USE ONLY
prepositional phrases consist of two parts: a
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preposition and a complement. The prepositions may be in, with, at, under and many
others, whereas complements may be a noun or a noun phrase. A prepositional phrase
specifies the head word of the noun phrase it modifies.

Relative clauses
A relative clause may also be used to modify a noun phrase, as shown in the examples
below.
(a) The teacher who teaches us English is very cooperative.
(b) I have lost the pen, which my mother gave me as a birthday present.
(c) The book which our teachers suggested to us is fantastic.

LY
(d) The person I talked to on the phone has arrived.

Activity 5.7

N
In pairs, combine the two sentences into one using a relative pronoun. Take turns to say

O
the sentences you have constructed.
(a) That is the officer. The officer helped me the other day.
SE
(b) The parents have been called by the head teacher. Their children have violated
the school regulations.
(c) I really like our house. My father built it two years ago.
U
(d) Nelson Mandela was an anti-apartheid activist. Mandela died in 2013.
(e) Old Fort (Ngome Kongwe) is a historical building. Old Fort was built in the
E

17th Century by the Portuguese.

(f) The play is about a woman. Her son mysteriously disappeared.
N

(g) Shakespeare is the greatest British writer. Shakespeare wrote The Merchants
of Vernice, Romeo and Juliet and A Midsummer Night’s Dream, among
LI

others.
N

(h) Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa. The mountain is in Tanzania.

(i) Karume was the first president of Zanzibar. He was assassinated in 1972.
O

(j) The boy is running towards the house. He is my little brother.

Hopefully, you have discovered that relative clauses begin with relative pronouns such
R

as who, which, whom and that. One of their functions is post-modifying nouns; they
FO

normally appear after the head noun in a noun phrase and add extra information to the
noun phrase.

Appositives
Activity 5.8
1. Read the following sentences and explain the concept of appositive (in italics):
(a) We visited Moiro, the bus conductor.
(b) Mwanaheri, the bookseller, has brought some new reading materials.

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(c) Mjumbe, the lawyer, FOR ONLINE

will guide us USE ONLY
through discussing land laws.
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(d) Mr Manga, our English teacher, is retired.
(e) The first president of Zanzibar, Abeid Karume, died in 1972.
2. Construct 10 sentences containing noun phrases which are post-modified by other
noun phrases (appositives).
You have discovered that a noun phrase can be post-modified by another noun phrase.
The modifier is known as an appositive. When a noun is general and an appositive is
used to qualify it, commas are not needed. However, if the noun is well-understood
and an appositive is used to add extra information, commas must be used. The commas
are added before and after the appositives. For example, Mtoni Maganga, our English

LY
teacher, was born in Butiama. ‘Our English teacher’ is an appositive of the proper
noun Mtoni Maganga. ‘Our English teacher’ is surrounded by commas because Mtoni

N
Maganga is a precise identifier. Unlike in the following example, ‘My neighbour James
Cosmas will attend the meeting.’ James Cosmas is neccessary to help identify the

O
neighbour, so, no commas are used.

Functions of noun phrases

SE
When we are learning the grammar of a language, it is very important for us to look at
two things: grammar or structure and its function. Therefore, the following activity will
U
help you to recognise different functions of noun phrases.

Activity 5.9
E

In groups, identify the functions of the underlined noun phrases.

N

(a) The robbers smashed the door with a big stone.

LI

(b) The man with an umbrella is our counsellor.

(c) She bought her daughter a new school bag.
N

(d) He is the best football player in the world.

O

(e) This computer works well.

A noun phrase can function as a subject, object (direct or indirect) or complement of
R

a sentence. The subject of a sentence is a person, place or thing that is performing the
action of the sentence. The direct object, is usually a noun or pronoun that directly
FO

receives the action of the sentence. Indirect objects indicate to whom or for whom
the action of the sentence is done. The indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun. A
subject complement either renames or describes the subject and therefore, is usually a
noun, pronoun or adjective. Subject complements occur when there is a linking verb
within the sentence (often a linking verb is a form of the verb TO BE).

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Understanding basic conceptsFOR ONLINE USE ONLY

of syntax
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Do you know the role of verbs in human language? They express actions and state of
being.

Activity 5.10
Study the following sentences and identify the function of each italicised verb.
(a) Dorothy laughed happily after hearing the news.
(b) Maimuna left yesterday.
(c) Hamis visited Mpoki last weekend.

In the three sentences above, the verbs tell us what happened. They also tell us who was

LY
involved in each action. In the first sentence, Dorothy is the subject. She was the one
who laughed. In the second sentence, Maimuna is also the only participant. She was the

N
one who left. In the third sentence, the participants are Hamis and Mpoki. Hamis paid
a visit and Mpoki benefited from the visit paid. For that reason, both Hamis and Mpoki

O
participated in the action in different capacities.

SE
(a) Intransitive verbs (one participant verbs)
Activity 5.11
In pairs, study the following sentences and identify the number of participants involved
U
in the actions expressed by the italicised verbs.
(a) Mary cried a lot when her mother left.
E

(b) Willy lives here.

(c) We always sleep early.
N

(d) Martin walks briskly.

LI

You might have noticed in Activity 5.10 that the verbs in ech sentence involve only one
participant, the subject. The subject does not transfer the action to any other participant
N

(object). The verb which does not take an object is an intranstive. Sentences containing
O

intransitive verbs have the patterns SV– subject + verb. They may also have adverbial
(A) elements (expressing place, time, purpose and manner).
R

Activity 5.12
FO

With a fellow student, write five sentences for each of the following patterns:
(a) SV
(b) SVA

(b) Transitive verbs (two or more participant verbs)

Activity 5.13
Study the following sentences and discuss them to identify the participants involved in
each action expressed by the verb.

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(a) FOR house.

My brother built a good ONLINE USE ONLY
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(b) Robert cooked ugali.
(c) Rehema composed a nice poem.
(d) Mwanaidi visited the Serengeti National Park last year.
(e) I saw George yesterday.
You might have noticed that there are verbs whose actions involve two participants;
a subject and an object. Verbs whose actions involve two participants are transitive
verbs. The subject transfers the action to the object. Most verbs in English are transtive.
Sentences containing transtive verbs have the pattern SVO (A) – Subject + Object +
(Adverbial). Note that, the A element, in this case, is optional.

LY
Activity 5.14
1. Underline the verb in each of the following sentences and state whether it is a

N
transitive or intransitive.

O
(a) He bought a new mobile phone yesterday.
(b) My sister lives in Mwanza.
SE
(c) John cleaned his room before leaving for school.
(d) Juma’s uncle helped us a lot.
(e) I read a nice poem.
U
(f) Ali felt tired after walking for three hours.
(g) Our head prefect was impressed with what we did.
(h) Monica was snoring when we left.
E

(i) Since you are tired, we must break.

N

(j) Birds sing.

LI

2. In groups, construct four sentences with each of the following patterns:

(a) SVO
N

(b) SVOA
(c) SV
O

(d) SVA
3. Take turns with your partner to say the sentences you have constructed in Number
R

2 above.
FO

4. Determine if the italicised verb in each sentence is transtive or intranstive.

(a) Mazengo lived in Majengo Street in Dodoma Region.
(b) I cooked a delicious breakfast.
(c) Makusu slipped on his way to the basket.
(d) Zawadi has been gossiping since early in the morning.
(e) I worked for ten hours yesterday.
(f) Rama gave an outrageous speech yesterday.
(g) The election committee nominated a questionable candidate.
(h) The prosecution proved the defendant’s guilty.

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(i) Neema rejected FOR ONLINE

the script USE
under ONLY
false pretenses.
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(j) Ally founded the white stripes.
(c) Ditransitive verbs

Activity 5.15
Study the following sentences and identify the participants in each sentence:
(a) My dad bought me a present.
(b) Our mother cooked us ugali.
(c) We gave him some money.
(d) Joseph sent me an email.

LY
(e) Their sister made them tea.
What have you discovered about the sentences you have just read? You might have

N
noticed that there are verbs whose actions involve three participants. The participants
are the subject and the two objects. The latter are direct and indirect objects. The direct

O
object is indicated using Od, while the indirect object is shown using Oi. Verbs that take
two objects are ditransitive. Such verbs occur in sentences with the pattern SVOiOd.
SE
A direct object refers to the recipient of the action. For example, in sentence (a) a
present is a direct object. That is something that was bought. In the same sentence,
U
me is an indirect object. It refers to someone who benefited from the act of buying the
present. The buyer had me in mind when buying the present.
E

Activity 5.16
N

1. Identify the ditransitive verbs in the following sentences:

(a) Asha gave her brother new shoes.
LI

(b) We made cakes.

(c) Martina wrote me a letter when I was in London.
N

(d) I will sell him my car.

O

(e) Buy them food as they are hungry.

(f) They bought us some rice in the restaurant.
(g) The air hostess showed us the seats.
R

(h) She ordered them food.

FO

(i) Baraka built his parents a new house.

(j) They named the baby Christina.
(k) Our grandma used to tell us stories.
(l) Could you lend me your book?
(m) Give me the ball.
(n) Pass him the salt quickly.
(o) The president appointed him an ambassador.

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FOR ONLINE
2. In groups, construct five sentences USE ONLY
from each of the following patterns:
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(a) SVO
(b) SVOiOd
(c) SVOA
Subject-verb agreement in sentences
Activity 5.17
1. In pairs, study the following sentences and say why you think they are grammatically
incorrect:
(a) *Students is playing.

LY
(b) *My friend are not happy.
(c) *Farmers likes selling their crops at farm-gate price.
(d) *I knows him very well.

N
(e) *The boys was pleased to see their friends.

O
You must have discovered that the sentences (a)– (e) are all grammatically incorrect
because the subjects do not agree with the verbs used.
SE
2. Study the corrected versions of the sentences below. Identify what has been changed
to make them correct.
(a) Students are playing.
U
(b) My friend is not happy.
(c) Farmers like selling their crops at a farm-gate price.
E

(d) I know him very well.

(e) The boys were pleased to see their friends.
N

3. Study the following alternative ways of expressing the same things.

LI

(a) They are playing.

(b) He is not happy.
N

(c) They like selling their crops at a farm-gate price.

(d) I know him very well.
O

(e) They were pleased to see their friends.

You will have noticed that subjects and verbs agree if sentences are grammatically
R

correct. Some subjects are singular, while others are plural. Different subjects agree
FO

with verbs in particular forms. When subjects and verbs agree, we say there is subject-
verb agreement or concord between them.
Verbs that are sensitive to their subjects are of three categories: the ‘BE’ forms, the
‘HAVE’ forms and other verbs in the simple present tense. The BE forms include am,
is, are, was and were. The am form is restricted to ‘I’ pronoun. So, we say, ‘I am
learning English’.
In contrast, are and were are used with you, we and they. So, we say, ‘You are learning
English.’ We also say, ‘We are learning English.’ Moreover, we say, ‘They are learning
English.’
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FOR
The form ‘was’ agrees with I, he, sheONLINE USEinstance,
and it. For ONLY we can say, ‘I was tired.’ You
DO NOT DUPLICATE
can also say, ‘He was tired.’ Similarly, ‘She was tired’ is correct. The form ‘is’ agrees
with he, she and it. For example, we can say, ‘He is tall,’ ‘She is tall’ and ‘It is raining.’
The ‘HAVE’ form is divided into have and has in the present tense and had in the past.
I, we, you and they agree with ‘have’. So you can say, ‘I have a nice book.’ By contrast,
we say ‘She has a new dress.’
In simple present tense, some verbs add an ‘s’. That is the case when he, she and it
are involved. We say, for example, ‘John works hard.’ Similarly, we say, ‘She lives in
Tabora.’ We also say, ‘It rains in April.’

LY
Activity 5.18
1. Write the verbs in brackets in their correct forms.

N
(a) The boy who speaks Japanese (be) our prefect last year.
(b) The man who owns many goats (be) happy with what he earns.

O
(c) When they arrived, we (be) already tired.
(d) Bright students (work) very hard.
SE
(e) Brothers and sisters usually (love) each other.
(f) Any entrepreneur who cooperates with other people (succeed).
(g) Your friend, Mosha, who lives in Magomeni, (be) a carpenter.
U
(h) My friend and I (be) in Form Five when the President visited our school.
(i) Our school (have) a very good garden.
E

(j) Who (have) taken my book?

N

2. In pairs, correct the ill-formed sentences.

(a) Cows produces milk.
LI

(b) Amina and her friend Angela is very happy today.

(c) Mwakapimba speak English fluently.
N

(d) We has lived here for ten years.

(e) John, who lives with his parents in Tanga, are here tonight.
O

(f) Money, which gives us strength and confidence, also make us happy.
(g) That big shop, containing many items, belong to my uncle.
R

(h) All the students who has not paid school fees are not allowed to enter the
FO

classrooms.
(i) The students was dancing on the playground when it started raining.
(j) The brilliant students who joined the school in January was very talented.
3. Construct sentences with appropriate subject-verb agreement using the following
expressions:
(a) students, books, yesterday, be, read
(b) normally, religious leaders, many followers, have
(c) Nangi, a new car, drive, these days
(d) my family, in Arusha, live, currently

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(e) FOR ONLINE

the class, noise, make, when USEcame
the teacher ONLY
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(f) it, now, rain
(g) Kigoma, an attractive town, be
(h) the dog, bark, now, be
(i) bananas, always, eaten ripe, be
(j) a good teacher, her students, help when they need assistance
Talking about places, time and manner
In the previous sections you learned prepositional phrases (PPs) that were used as post-
modifiers of noun phrases. Here, you will learn about another function of PPs, which is
used as an Adverbial (A) in a sentence.

LY
Activity 5.19

N
In groups, study the following sentences and identify the prepositional phrases, which
show place, time or manner:

O
(a) Fire was discovered in the past.
(b) Fire was discovered many years ago.
SE
(c) He likes to go to the beach with his friends.
(d) He went to Dodoma on Monday.
(e) I’m ready to return home with or without you.
U
(f) Students arrived early.
(g) Students arrived in time.
E

(h) The man in the corner wants to talk to you.

(i) The man wants to talk to you in the corner.
N

(j) The secretary spoke politely.

LI

(k) The secretary spoke with politeness

(l) We went there to meet our friends.
N

(m) We went to the cinema hall for meeting our friends.

(n) He went to Songea yesterday.
O

There are two types of constructions that express time, place, purpose and manner. The
constructions are prepositional phrases and adverbs or adverbial phrases.
R

Activity 5.20
FO

1. Mention the function of each prepositional phrase in the following sentences:

(a) They lived in Dar es Salaam.
(b) Our fore-fathers are said to have lived on roots and fruits.
(c) My sister speaks with authority.
(d) The old man spoke with a stammer.
(e) Mahugija comes from Maswa.
(f) After being inspired, they spoke in tongues.
(g) Kisa was at home that time.

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FOR
(h) In principle, I don’t agree ONLINE
with you. USE ONLY
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(i) I support you from the bottom of my heart.
(j) The young man jumped with vigour.
2. Now rewrite the following sentences, replacing the adverbs with prepositional
phrases:
(a) The sportswoman ran briskly.
(b) Brown made his speech determinedly.
(c) The gentleman spoke very humbly.
(d) The participants arrived early.
(e) The teacher arrived punctually.

LY
(f) Soldiers are taught to face danger courageously.
(g) When Neema heard that, she shook her head sadly.
(h) The headmaster always speaks angrily.

N
(i) Meshack and Abednego lived resiliently.

O
(j) When we asked her, she answered defiantly.
Clauses and sentences
SE
At the beginning of the chapter, we said we would learn various structural levels,
including clauses.
U
Activity 5.21
Study the following expressions:
E

(a) a strong woman

N

(b) a school child

(c) a small room in a big building
LI

(d) Jimmy understands English.

(e) Richard may help us.
N

(f) She is a lorry driver.

O

What have you noticed in the constructions above? You are likely to have noticed that
the first three constructions are noun phrases. Of course, you have also noticed that the
R

other three expressions have more than one part. They have the noun phrase and the
verb phrase. The first part, which is the noun phrase, is called the subject. The second
FO

part is a verb phrase, which includes a verb and words that follow the verb. The verb
and the accompanying words constitute the predicate.
The construction that comprises a subject and a predicate is technically referred to as a
clause. A clause is higher in status than a phrase. When a sentence consists of a linking
verb (e.g. be, seem, appear, become), it will have a complement (C). For example, the
sentence She is a lorry driver is made up of the subject (S) ‘She’ and the complement
‘a lorry driver’. It is in SVC structure. The subject complement carries the attributes of
the subject. In other words, the subject and the complement refer to the same person,
that is, she and a lorry driver. A clause can be a sentence but not always the case.
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Activity 5.22 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. Carefully, study the following clauses:
(a) My friend is a doctor
(b) She lives here
(c) You will pass the examination
(d) If you ask me a question
(e) When the bell rang
(f) Although they know us
2. What difference have you observed in the clauses you have just read?

LY
You might have discovered that there are clauses that look like sentences. They are
complete in terms of conveying the target message. These are technically referred to as
independent clauses. On the contrary, some of the clauses appear to be incomplete in

N
that they cannot convey a complete meaning. Those are called dependent clauses. They

O
are dependent because they depend on the other parts of the sentences to convey the
meanings. When a dependent clause is produced, you will feel like asking a question
because it presents an incomplete thought. For example, the expression “If you work
SE
hard,” appears incomplete and makes someone want to know “what will happen”.

Activity 5.23
U
1. Identify independent and dependent clauses from the following:
(a) Unless she comes tonight
E

(b) He came early yesterday

N

(c) When he comes

(d) He left immediately
LI

(e) As soon we arrived

(f) No sooner had he finished reading
N

(g) Although Jenifer attended the meeting

O

(h) If you worked hard

(i) We shall reap what we sow
(j) After arriving at the party
R

2. Make two dependent clauses using each of the following words in the textbox:
FO

if although unless when

as if as soon as in case as long as
as though even if

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Dependent clauses are also called FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

subordinate clauses. They are introduced by
DO NOT DUPLICATE
subordinating conjunctions. The subordinating conjunctions include expressions like
provided that, if, in case, in so far, as far as, no matter how, because, as though, rather
than, though, until, unless, since, before.

Activity 5.24
Rewrite the following sentences using the words given in brackets and discuss your
answers with your fellow student.
(a) Despite experiencing hardship in the past, Ronaldo is successful (notwithstanding).
(b) You are allowed to do whatever you wish provided that you do not disturb the

LY
school timetable (only if).
(c) Because you are tired, you should break for half an hour (since).
(d) If you see him, let me know (in case).

N
(e) He behaves as if nothing has happened (as though).
(f) Despite the bad weather, we managed to land safely (in spite of).

O
(g) No matter how strong they are, car tyres do not last for five years (notwithstanding).
(h) Unless you have courage, you cannot take part in business (if).
SE
(i) You may do as you wish provided that you pay that amount of money (if).
(j) Rather than stay at home, you had better sell peanuts (instead of…)
U
Analysing English sentences
Let us now turn to the difference between a clause and a sentence.
E

Activity 5.25
N

1. Study the following clauses:

LI

(a) Provided my brother is happy

(b) When it was raining
N

(c) As soon as we arrived

(d) He knows me
O

(e) We saw antelopes at the Mikumi National Park

(f) The youth are highly obsessed with the social media
R

What is the difference between the clauses? You are likely to have noticed that all the
FO

clauses have subjects and predicates. However, the first three clauses seem to lack
information that would make them complete. Therefore, they are groups of words
which do not express complete meanings. The second category of clauses consists of
clauses that express complete thoughts. When you hear them, you understand what is
said without additional information. Those are sentences. What makes a construction
become a sentence is its ability to express a complete thought. On the contrary, a clause
is defined on the basis of the presence of a subject and a predicate in it. For that reason,
all sentences contain one or more clauses.

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FOR
2. Identify the number of clauses inONLINE USE ONLY
the following sentences:
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(a) Unless you tell me what happened, I will report you.
(b) They called me as soon as they arrived in Kampala.
(c) I don’t know Idd.
(d) If you help them, they will appreciate it.
(e) Tatu was wearing a blue suit that day.
(f) The United Republic of Tanzania is in East Africa.
(g) No matter how smart you are, they will track you.
(h) You will find people wherever you go.
(i) Honey is sweet.
(j) Although many didn’t support him, he was firm in his belief.

LY
3. Make sentences for each of the following situations. Identify how many clauses are

N
in each sentence.
(a) a football match between Simba and Yanga

O
(b) your first day at the A-Level boarding school
(c) your favourite food
(d) the teacher you admire
(e) why you work hard
SE
(f) the importance of money
U
(g) conserving the environment
(h) the unforgettable day
E

(i) the course you will take at university

(j) why families matter
N

Categorising sentences in terms of structure

LI

We have just learned how sentences are constructed. The following section covers the
N

clauses that make up a sentence.

O

Activity 5.26
Study the following sentences and identify the number of clauses in each:
R

(a) My friend called me yesterday.

(b) She teaches Mathematics well.
FO

(c) Smartphones are very expensive.

(d) Social media take up most of our time.
How many clauses does each of the sentences have? Sentences, like those above, are
called simple sentences. They are simple because they contain a simple structure, that
is, only one clause. Normally, a simple sentence is about a particular thing. That is the
first category of sentences based on structure.

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Activity 5.27 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Use simple sentences to describe the following:
(a) The place you were born
(b) your age
(c) what you like
(d) where you study
(e) your best friend
Combining clauses of equal status
There are times when two simple clauses are put together to form a larger one. In pairs,

LY
study the following sentences and identify the sentences which are combined to form
a larger one.
(a) Juma was reading, but his brother was writing.

N
(b) We saw the lion and we started running.
(c) People laughed at her, but she remained calm.

O
(d) They were hungry, so we gave them food.
(e) You may grow maize or open a shop.
SE
What characterises the sentences you have just studied? You must have noticed that
each of them comprises two independent clauses which are bound together using words
like and, but, so and or. Sentences of this kind are called compound sentences. We need
U
compound sentences when we want to express two complete thoughts at once. You can
hardly communicate in simple sentences all the time.
E

Activity 5.28
N

1. Make compound sentences to describe the following situations:

LI

(a) what you do at home and at school

(b) what you choose to wear on a particular day
N

(c) something you mistook for something else

O

(d) two contrasting situations

(e) two different options to choose from
R

2. Join the following clauses to make single sentences.

(a) He wants to work. He is tired.
FO

(b) They were tall. They were not strong.

(c) Ann speaks English. Ann doesn’t speak Nyakyusa.
(d) I may become a doctor. I may not become a lawyer.
(e) I had money. I didn’t want that book.
(f) They were late. They took a taxi.
(g) There is no formula to success. Hard work makes the difference.
(h) We read newspapers. We sent emails.
(i) The teacher spoke to him in Kiswahili. He responded in Kifipa.

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FOR status
Combining clauses with different ONLINE USE ONLY
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We have just finished talking about compound sentences which are formed by combining
two simple clauses. One dominant feature of compound sentences is that they are made
up of clauses of the same status. This is not the same with other types of sentences.

Activity 5.29

Study the following sentences and identify the types of clauses in each:
(a) If you keep the secret, nobody will know.
(b) Although my brother is rich, he lives a simple life.

LY
(c) Provided that you understand it, clarification is not needed.
(d) Even though you are kind, some people will never appreciate it.
(e) The conductor made an announcement before the bus left.

N
(f) After boarding a flight, passengers fasten their seat belts.
(g) When he arrived, it was raining heavily.

O
You must have noticed that there are two types of clauses in each sentence; that is,
SE
a dependent clause and an independent clause. Sentences like those are referred to
as complex sentences. Complex sentences contain at least one dependent clause and
one independent clause. A complex sentence has a subordinating conjunction like if,
U
although and when. It may also have a participle element; for example, having eaten
ugali…
E

Activity 5.30
N

1. Combine each of the following pairs of sentences to form a complex sentence:

LI

(a) You want to get money. You have to work hard.

(b) It was dark. He arrived safely.
N

(c) He had seen a thief. He pretended to have not seen him/her.

(d) The students saw the burning building. They reported the event immediately.
O

(e) He is obese. He doesn’t exercise.

(f) We went to the market. We wanted to buy books.
R

(g) Mr Kisanga exercises every day. He wants to remain fit.

(h) The weather was very bad. They went to work.
FO

(i) She wore cheap clothes. She came from a rich family.
(j) They could not afford soap. They looked scruffy.
2. Write sentences for the following situations:
(a) the reason that made you wish to become a lawyer
(b) what makes the youth obsessed with social media
(c) why some countries are rich in resources but economically poor
(d) the time fire was discovered
(e) the reason for cooking food instead of eating it raw

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(f) how the wind causes soilFOR ONLINE USE ONLY

erosion
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(g) what fascinates football fans
(h) why dogs growl
(i) the condition for boarding an aircraft
(j) the reason for reading intensively

Using complex and compound sentences at the same time

You have just seen that simple sentences are made up of single independent clauses.
You have also learned that compound sentences comprise simple sentences that are
combined. Moreover, you have learned that complex sentences are formed when

LY
dependent and independent clauses are combined. Is that the end of the story? There
are also other sentences you will learn.

N
Activity 5.31

O
1. Study the following sentences carefully:
(a) If you need money, you should work hard and be determined to succeed.
(b)
(c)
SE
No matter how much noise you make, you will be punished and condemned.
Tony keeps cats because he hates mice, so he wants the cats to keep mice away.
U
(d) Although you were tired, you continued working and finished the assignment.

2. What have you noticed in sentences (a)–(d)?

E

Each sentence in Activity 5.31 consists of at least two independent clauses and a
N

dependent clause. Sentences that are structured like that are referred to as compound-
complex sentences. In other words, compound-complex sentences consist of compound
LI

and complex sentences.

N

Activity 5.32
O

Make a compound-complex sentence from each of the following situations:

(a) Mary was tired. She wanted to win the race. She continued running.
R

(b) It was raining. Students had an exam. They decided to leave home for school.
FO

(c) I run every morning. I do that when the sun is rising. Today it is raining
heavily.
(d) The dog lay under the car. I was about to start the car. It ran away quickly when
I started leaving.
(e) It is very hot outside. Wear a hat. Start the journey.
(f) When the sky is clear, I go out. I sit under a tree. I read a novel.
(g) Jamila has some money. She wants to buy food. She needs clothes, too.

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Revision FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. How would you distinguish between a noun phrase and a simple sentence?
2. What makes a sentence complex?
3. With an example, define a dependent clause.
4. Why would you say “If James works hard” is a dependent clause?
5. Analyse each sentence pattern below using the labels SV, SVO, SVOiOd,
SVC, SVOC, SVA.
(a) Willy bought his friend a ring.
(b) Neema sings well.

LY
(c) She made us a delicious food.
(d) Children who usually go to school are happy.
(e) They danced with vigour.

N
(f) He gave me a cup of tea as soon as I arrived.

O
(g) The company is very successful.
(h) The parents called him Danny.
(i) He is very brave. SE
(j) Halima ate all the food that had been cooked for the school children.
6. Show the adverbial functions played by each of the italicised phrases.
U
(a) There is no food in the dining room.
(b) The Guest of Honour spoke with a stammer.
E

(c) She looked serious from the very beginning of the event.
(d) Mwakapeje went there for a special assignment.
N

(e) Water flows along this trench.

LI

(f) The door was shut with a bang.

(g) The choir sang with enthusiasm.
N

(h) The president greeted them with a smile.

(i) The class started in the morning.
O

(j) He will remain there until next month.

7. Form noun phrases from the following groups of words. Use the correct
R

order for each of the phrases formed.

FO

(a) school, good mannered, children

(b) boys, by the road, sit
(c) students, come, to the university
(d) men, in the corner of the classroom, sit
(e) those, beautiful, three, girls, near the gate
(f) stood, at the door, the gentleman
(g) the man, tattered clothes, in
(h) wearing, around her head, a woman, a turban
(i) Maria’s, routine, exercising

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(j) with, five children, a, family, happy
8. Put the words in brackets into their correct forms to complete the following
sentences:
(a) My neighbours always (make) a lot of noise.
(b) The woman (look) younger, although she is in her late fifties.
(c) A cow (have) four legs.
(d) Whenever we get tired, we (break) for a couple of minutes.
(e) Our friend Edison who comes from Scotland (be) very hard-working.
(f) Grace, whose parents live in Indonesia, (be) our ally.

LY
(g) Sir Alex Ferguson, who (be) the Manchester United coach, is now retired.
(h) News (spread) quickly when it is about a famous person.
(i) The trousers she was wearing (be) clean.

N
(j) Lipuli Football Club (be) nicknamed ‘Wana Paluhengo.’

O
9. Form single sentences by combining the following pairs of sentences:
(a) Martha looks healthy. She always falls sick.
SE
(b) Peter wants to travel next week. He must buy a bus ticket.
(c) Hazole is very intelligent. He did not pass the examination.
(d) It will not rain for months. We shall starve this year.
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(e) He entered the classroom. Soon after that, he started teaching.
(f) It was morning. John left for work, but Steve went to school.
(g) I was hospitalised. That time many people visited me.
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(h) Football fans believe their teams are great. The results are sometimes
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embarrassing.
(i) Air travel is quick and comfortable. Only a few people can afford it.
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(j) She works very hard. Her parents do not appreciate it.
N
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Reflection
1. What have you learned from this chapter?
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2. Would you agree that language is governed by rules? Why?

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3. What is the most interesting thing in the chapter?

4. Why would you advise your friend to read this chapter?

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Six Developing listening skills

Introduction
Listening is a vital skill in language learning and effective communication. It is

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necessary to acquire listening skills since they help us understand what others say. In
this chapter, you will learn various techniques and strategies for effective listening.
You will also learn various skills that facilitate effective listening. In addition,

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you will do various activities and answer questions to practise and enhance your
listening skills. The competencies developed from reading this chapter will enable

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you to engage effectively in conversations and obtain information from dictations,
public announcements, speeches and lectures.
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Listening and hearing
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Listening is a way of exercising language skills and an important means of getting
information or interacting with others. Listening is interactional and transactional. It
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involves paying close attention to what is said. When persons learn to listen, they learn
to listen with a purpose and expectation. A listener identifies the purpose of listening
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since listening is selective.

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Hearing, conversely, refers to our ability to perceive noise and sounds. Humans have
a fairly narrow range of hearing compared to other species, and the organs that allow
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us to hear are susceptible to many conditions. Listening is different from hearing in

O

that listening is determined, focused and planned. Listening is voluntary, conscious

and intentional, unlike hearing which is involuntary, unintentional and effortless. In
listening, it is possible to recall the information, whereas, in hearing, it is impossible to
R

recall the information. Hearing is a mechanical process in which the ear converts sound
FO

waves into electrical signals, which the brain can understand. Unlike hearing, listening
requires some amount of training that involves practising our ears to decode correctly
what others say to us.

Principles of effective listening

Although listening involves hearing information and requires learning the skills for
effective listening, one should always adhere to the following principles of listening:

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(a) Paying attention to verbalFOR andONLINE USEclues

nonverbal ONLY
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If you want to understand well what someone says, you must pay attention to what is
said. It is also important to look at the speaker because sometimes body language and
facial expressions can add meaning to the speaker’s words.

(b) Listening to ideas, not words

Assume your parents talk to you for 10 minutes about what you should or should not do
in your life. If you are asked to repeat what your parents have told you in one sentence,
you will definitely be able to do so. What will enable you to do so is your focus. Out
of all the words that your parents tell you, your focus will be on the main ideas or
messages only. These are the ideas and messages which matter to you in relation to

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all that your parents have said. Similarly, you need to focus on the main ideas in every
listening activities.

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(c) Listening to the key words

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The previous principle required you to focus on the main ideas when listening. But
how could you understand the ideas? It is by picking the key words from the speaker.
Speakers tend to emphasise their main ideas using particular words. The words are
SE
carefully selected to communicate certain meanings. When you hear words like masks,
social distancing, washing hands and chronic pneumonia, you know that they are
talking about COVID-19 or anything related to that. Generally, key words dominate
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the speaker’s speech.
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(d) Paying attention to discourse markers

Speakers use certain words to indicate the direction of their talk. For instance, speakers
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present opposing ideas using expressions like ‘but’, ‘on the other hand...’, ‘on the
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contrary...’ and conversely’. Likewise, speakers can say ‘also...’, ‘in addition...’,
and ‘furthermore’ to present additional ideas. Thus, the use of discourse markers is
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important in linking ideas.

O

(e) Being patient

Do not jump to conclusions before speakers complete their talk because you may end
R

up misinterpreting the whole message. In the following advert, you may confuse the
deadline for submitting your essay to the essay competition organisers by memorising
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the first date. The message is as follows:

The deadline for submitting essays is normally 31st December every
year. But this year the date has been moved to the last day of November.
In this kind of advert, one can think that the deadline is 31st December instead of 30th
November. This tells us that effective listeners need to be patient. Patience helps them
to avoid missing information. To be an effective listener, you must learn to be patient.

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(f) Taking notes, especially inFOR ONLINE USElistening

comprehensive ONLY
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Comprehensive listening involves listening intensively when the topic comprises many
details. It is difficult to remember all important things if you do not take notes. Thus,
you should always have a pen and a notebook when you attend any event or activity
involving listening.

(g) Distinguishing facts and opinions as the speaker delivers speech

A fact is a statement that can be proven true, while an opinion is an expression of
someone’s feelings or views that cannot be proven. Opinions can be based on facts
or emotions, and sometimes they are meant to deliberately mislead others. During

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listening, it is important to distinguish between facts and opinions.

Activity 6.1

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Identify facts and opinions in the following sentences:

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(i) The German ruled Tanganyika until 1918.
(ii) I think she is a polite person.
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(iii) For the food to be digested well, it has first to be bitten into small pieces.
(iv) I believe he will finish his work before lunch.
Purpose of listening
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It was noted earlier that listening is intentional. The intention to listen goes with the
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purpose of listening. No listening is done without a purpose. People hear many things,
but most of the things they hear do not mean anything unless the person wants to
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achieve some purpose. Thus, one can argue that listening is purposeful hearing. An
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instance of this is when you tell people a story and ask them to recount what they
heard. Reports will differ depending on intentions. Such intentions go with interests,
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age, hobbies, educational level, socio-economic background and marital status, among
others.
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Activity 6.2
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1. In groups, discuss the following questions and write your answers in your notebooks:
(a) What is the difference between listening and hearing?
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(b) What do people listen to?

(c) How do people listen?
(d) What are the attributes of a good listener?
(e) Why is it important for a person to be a good listener?
(f) What hinders effective listening?
2. Listen to the news broadcast on the radio at the time determined by your teacher.
Take note of the message and discourse markers and present them to the class as
guided by your teacher.

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Attributes of a good listener FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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You cannot become a good listener by reading about listening. You need to have certain
tools that will help you develop your listening skills. Think of your fellow student,
whom you think listens carefully when you talk to him/her or when he/she talks with
other students. What do you think makes him/her a good listener? The following points
should be observed for one to be a good listener:
(a) listen with the whole body, including eye contact and gestures such as nodding
and smiling;
(b) ask thoughtful follow-up questions for thorough comprehension;
(c) avoid personal opinions and unnecessary interruption when you are listening to
somebody;

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(d) pay attention and not be easily distracted while listening;
(e) think about what the speaker wants to say next;

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(f) pick up on the emotions and feelings of the speaker;
(g) remember what was said in a speech or lecture and summarise it effectively;

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and
(h) learn from a conversation and give a positive reinforcement during conversation.
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Listening to get information from different sources
Sources of information vary because people listen to something for different reasons.
The focus is determined by the purpose. For example, a person who is listening to a
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dictation is likely to pay more attention to detail than a person who is listening to news
broadcast.
E

(a) Listening to dictation

N

Dictation is saying words or reading aloud a piece of writing so that someone can listen
and write it down. Although dictation is basically a listening activity, learners’ ability
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to listen correctly is examined through writing.

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Activity 6.3
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1. Listen to your fellow student reading a passage or a news article and answer the
following questions:
(a) What is the key word in the text?
R

(b) Explain the key information presented in the passage or article.

FO

(c) Write a summary of the information in the passage or article.

2. Listen to your fellow student reading a passage or a text on the field of science and
literature, and answer the following questions:
(a) What is the text about?
(b) How is the language of science different from that of literature?
(c) What challenges did you encounter while listening to the passage?
(d) Write a summary of what you have listened to and present it to your fellow
students. What was it about?

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(b) Listening to public announcements
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A public announcement is a formal statement, which is made to the public or to the
media and which gives information about something that has happened or is about to
happen. Public announcements are sometimes called press releases or public notices.
Depending on the nature of events, public announcements have no uniform structure,
though most of them are short.

Activity 6.4
1. Listen to public announcements (announcements at a bus/railway station, a weather
forecast on the radio, and the like) prepared by your teacher. Then, answer the

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following questions for each of the announcements you have listened to:
(a) What is the announcement about?
(b) Who gives the announcement?

N
(c) What is the public asked to do?
(d) Why is the announcement given?

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2. Explain the meaning of COVID-19 and write a public announcement about
controlling COVID-19 infections. The following graphics can help you to write the
announcement:
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U
E
N
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N
O
R
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Source: Avert.org
3. Write a public health announcement on malaria, read it aloud to your group members
and ask them oral questions on it to ascertain whether they have understood the
announcement or not.

(c) Listening to information about events

An event is anything that happens, especially something important or unusual. The
event is any activity taking place in a community. Sport activities, political rallies,
exhibitions, conferences, seminars, workshops and meetings are events. Occasionally,

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we hear announcements about these USEannouncements
events. The ONLY include dates, venues,
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participants, (entrance) fees and logistics. In such events, people need listening skills
to decode the messages.

Activity 6.5
1. Listen to the announcements made to you by your teacher on any event and answer
the following questions:
(a) What is the announcement about?
(b) What specific or important information is provided in the announcement?
(c) Who is the target audience?

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(d) How is the language used in the announcement?
2. Listen to a radio announcement on any event and then write a summary of the event
using the following guide questions:

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(a) What was the announcement about?

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(b) Who gave the announcement and on what radio?
(c) Who was the target audience?
SE
(d) What is the specific information provided in the announcement?

(d) Listening to announcements on missing persons

You may have heard on the radio or TV about the missing of children or adults with
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mental or physical problems. Information is normally circulated to get the attention of
the public. Part of the activity in this chapter is to listen to such announcements so that
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we understand the details of the people who have gone missing.

N

Activity 6.6
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1. Assume that a child has gone missing in your society. Write an announcement
which can be broadcasted on TV or the radio. Include the following information in
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the announcement:
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(a) the name, age and sex of the victim

(b) the reason for the person going missing
(c) the health status and general appearance of the victim
R

(d) the people who should be informed if the person is found

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2. Describe the appearance of one of your friends without mentioning his/her name.
Then ask your partner to identify the person. Use the hints below in your description.
Characteristics Common appearance
Physique fat, thin, well-built, slim, skinny, small frame, large frame,
medium build, athletic build, stout
Height tall, short, average height
Complexion (skin) black, white, dark, light, brown

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Eyes/eyebrows/ blue, DO
green, black, small, large, blue, thin eyebrows,
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eyelashes bushy eyebrows, long eyelashes, short eyelashes
Face round, long, oval, thin
Hair long, short, wavy, black, grey, white, bald,
Others moustache, beard

(e) Listening to speeches and lectures

Speeches and lectures are forms of address designed for different purposes. Lectures
are delivered to students in universities and colleges, while speeches are delivered in
conference settings. In universities, lectures are used as the main pedagogical method

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of instruction. This is not so in conferences where speakers address professionals.

Activity 6.7

N
1. In groups, discuss the following questions:

O
(a) Listen to one of your favorite speeches?
(b) Who made it?
(c) What was the speech about?
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(d) What was the audience?
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(e) Prepare a speech on whether English is a second or foreign language in Tanzania.
Give the speech to the class.
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2. Listen to Mwalimu Nyerere’s speech titled ‘Without unity, there is no future for
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Africa’, which your teacher will read to you. Then summarise the speech in not
LI

more than 150 words.

N

(f) Influence of idiomatic expressions and collocations in listening situations

Idiomatic expressions are groups of words with established meanings which are not
O

related to the meanings of their individual words. Examples of idioms are: “kick
the bucket”, meaning “die”; “In one’s birthday suit” meaning “naked”; “better half”
R

meaning “wife/husband”; and “cat’s pajamas” meaning “something or someone highly

enjoyable, desirable or impressive”. Idiomatic expressions and collocations make a
FO

speaker communicate the intended message. In most cases, a language with so many
idiomatic expressions or with a higher level of formality is complex.

On a separate note, collocations are words that can occur together to form natural
patterns. Examples of collocations are “pay attention,” “fast food,” “make an effort,”
“very good,” “very nice” and “powerful engine.”

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Activity 6.8 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. Tune into an English news programme on a TV or radio and listen to a weather
forecast to determine the jargon and language used. Use the following questions to
guide you through your listening:
(a) What jargon is commonly used in weather forecasting?
(b) How is the language used on a TV-show different from the common language?
(c) What challenges did you encounter in trying to understand the information
provided? How did you deal with the challenges?
(d) Prepare a news script and role-play it in class as a weather forecast news reporter
of a local TV station.

LY
2. Use the YouTube channel to search for and listen to the language on a legal TV
show. There are many legal TV programmes on YouTube which you could watch
and listen to, for example ‘Judge Judy’. Use the following points to guide you

N
through the listening process:

O
(a) What jargon is commonly used on the TV show you have watched?
(b) How is the language used different from the common language?
SE
(c) What challenges did you encounter while trying to understand the information
provided? How did you deal with the challenges?
3. Role-play a criminal trial in the class to learn and practise a legal language. The
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following are the suggested characters and their roles for you to choose:
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Suspect: As a suspect, you are being accused of stealing vegetables from

your neighbour’s garden.
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Witness: As a witness, you live next door to the victim and think you saw
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and heard what happened. You will testify in court.

Complainant: As a victim, you must consult the prosecutor to prepare for the
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trial.
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Judge: As a judge, you will manage the trial and call up the prosecutor,
defence lawyer and witness to speak. You will ask the jury for
their final judgement. You will also have to sentence the suspect
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if found guilty.
FO

Prosecuting As a prosecuting team of 1 to 3 people, you will give advice to

team: the suspect and help them prepare for the trial. You will also
argue for or against their side in the trial. This will also question
the victim, witness and the suspect.
Jury: As a jury of 2 to 12 people, you must listen to and discuss the
evidence presented in the trial. Then, make a collective decision
as your a verdict. You can also recommend a sentence to the
judge if the suspect is guilty.

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Procedures FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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(a) Make notes on what you are going to say during the trial. Work with whoever
has a complementary role to rehearse for the trial. For example, the defence
team and the suspect meet so that they give the same message. The jury will
organise the classroom so that it resembles a courtroom.
(b) The judge opens the trial by summarising the case and the basic facts of the
case.
(c) The judge calls the prosecutor to the stand to present their case. The prosecuting
team then cross-examines the complainant, the suspect and the complainant.
The victim, suspect and the witness must answer three questions each from the
prosecuting team.

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(d) The judge then asks the defence lawyer to present their case. The defence team
then cross-examines the complainant, the suspect and witness. The complainant,

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the suspect and the witness must answer three questions each from the defence
team.

O
(e) The prosecutor and the defence lawyer then give their final submission based
on the evidence presented.
SE
(f) The judge then asks the jury to deliberate and decide on the verdict. The jury
has up to ten minutes to do so.
(g) The judge then asks the jury for their verdict. If the accused is guilty, the judge
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pronounces the sentence. The judge then closes the trial.
Once you have chosen/assigned yourselves the roles, go through the guidelines so that
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everyone understands the reason for the trial, the roles you will play, and the basic
facts, which are as follows:
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(a) The complainant had vegetables stolen from his garden.

LI

(b) The suspect was at home alone at the time of the crime.
(c) The witness saw someone like the suspect climbing over the victim’s fence,
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although the witness is not certain.

(d) The judge is open-minded and is willing to listen to both sides.
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(e) Half the jury sympathise with the victim and the other half sympathise with the
suspect.
R
FO

Reflection
1. What new things have you learned from this chapter?
2. Can you confidently say that you can now listen and write down what you
hear?
3. What would you want to learn more in this chapter?
4. What do you want to do to improve your listening skills?

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Speech making,

Seven presentation and engaging

in discussion
Introduction
Language is a tool that enables members of a particular speech community to

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interact and communicate so as to exchange ideas, share knowledge and experiences
for sustainable development. This chapter focuses on the use of language to deliver
speeches and engage in debates, dialogues and panel discussions. It begins with

N
speech delivery techniques and moves on to telephone conversations, panel
discussions, debating, and organising questions and answers (Q&A) in oral events.

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The competencies gained will enable you to use English in actual situations and
speak it well with confidence in different settings.

Speech-making
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Activity 7.1
Discuss the following questions with your fellow student:
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(a) Which of the speech you have ever listened to is the most interesting?
N

(b) Mention at least three famous speeches you know.

(c) Who delivered the speeches?
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(d) Explain briefly what the speeches were about and where they were delivered.
N

A speech is a formal piece of writing that is delivered verbally to an audience in a

O

particular event. Speeches are delivered face-to-face although, with the development
of Information, Communication and Technology (ICT), speeches may be delivered
R

virtually. Regardless of the mode of delivery, speech making involves the speaker, the
message and the audience. In addition, the setting (context, occasion) and purpose of
FO

the speech is equally important.

Many speeches are written so that they can be read out on certain occasions. That
is probably why people do not ‘speak’ speeches, but read them out to the audience.
Since speeches are meant to be heard and understood by the audience, they should
be prepared in simple language, with proper grammatical constructions but with no
ambiguity. Today, some people specialise in preparing speeches. Other people prefer
to speak directly to the audience in order to engage them and interact with them better.
They use written speech just as a reminder.

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Things to consider in preparing FOR ONLINE

and givingUSE ONLY
a speech
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There are three important things to consider if one wants to prepare and deliver a
good speech: the audience, the message and the modality of delivery. The audience
is the target listeners. The speaker should bear in mind the people’s interests, levels
of education, socio-economic status, age, professional backgrounds (occupations),
political affiliations, ethnicity, marital status and religious beliefs, among many others.
One needs to adopt effective strategies to meet the audience’s expectations.
The message is what is said. The speaker should know what kind of message she
or he is planning to deliver. The question to ask oneself is: ‘Is the message or topic
relevant to the audience?’ Normally, the topic should be relevant to the occasion or
event. Indeed, the speech designed for Heroes Day in Tanzania would not be relevant

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for the Independence Day. The mismatch between the message and the event leads to a
faulty communication as the audience do not understand the way you are making such
a speech. It is also important to make sure you have collected and organised well all the

N
materials you need for the speech.

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Modality of delivery refers to the way the speaker will be speaking. One should select
the best possible strategy or technique. The speaker’s stress and intonation need to be
SE
audible enough. It should be remembered that delivering a speech is not like reading
a novel or telling a bedtime story to children; the speaker’s stress and intonation
must be appropriate. The speech should not be flat and monotonous, but should vary
according to shifts in the focus of information or ideas. Speakers should, therefore,
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devise effective strategies to make their stress and intonation appropriate. Speakers can
also colour their speech delivery by employing language devices of their own choice
E

such as similes, metaphors, proverbs, sayings, repetition, irony, sarcasm and hyperbole.
Speakers can also make their speeches attractive and effective by giving facts, statistics,
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using humour (jokes) and making allusions (historic, religious, political, etc.) and using
LI

appropriate words. Other paralinguistic features like gestures and facial expressions of
different kinds add value to a speech.
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One crucial thing to consider is the setting or occasion, that is, the place where the
speech is to be made. Speaking in an open space is different from speaking indoors.
O

Even in the latter, there are differences in venues. Speaking in a small closed room
requires different preparation from speaking in an auditorium. All these things should
R

be considered when one is preparing to make a speech.

FO

Activity 7.2
In pairs, answer the following questions:
1. Why is it important to consider the audience, message and modality of delivery
when one wants to prepare and deliver a speech?
2. How do you know the appropriate tone for your speech or presentation?
3. What style should you strive for in your speech presentation? How can you
craft that kind of style?
4. What are some of the stylistic devices which you can use in speech presentation?

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Tactical skills/techniques for delivering

FOR ONLINE a good speech
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It should be noted that speaking in public is like running a race. In a race, one has to ensure
that all the skills and techniques necessary for winning the race are used. Similarly, if
you intend to deliver a good speech, you have to do the same. In speech delivery, things
such as voice management, proper use of gestures or facial expressions and flexible
postures are of great importance. No matter whether your audience consists of street-
children, parents, your fellow students or the general public, you need to reinforce your
speech by showing strong feelings and interest in what you are saying. Use your body
language properly; speak with force and vigour to emphasise your points. Skilful use
of your body language helps you to say what you could not say in words. Above all,

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when delivering a speech which will be remembered for days, weeks, months and even
years, remember the following:
(a) Take a deep breath: The best time to take a deep breath is a few minutes before

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you get up to speak. Take a deep breath and fill your lungs with air, then exhale

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it through your mouth to relax and get prepared.
(b) Eye contact: This is very important during your speech. It gives you confidence
SE
and assurance. This is why you should not just read your speech.
(c) Fluency: Try to let the speech flow smoothly; be fluent and use the right stress
and intonation throughout your speech. Do not be tense, stiff and mechanical
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when speaking. A fluent speech is one delivered in a natural manner.
(d) Gestures, facial expressions and body language: In delivering a speech, always
study your audience and make use of facial expression and body language to
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attract their attention and arouse their interest in your speech.

N

(e) Use of voice: For a great impact and interest of your speech to the audience,
you need to make use of the four dimensions of your voice: volume, pitch, rate
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and articulation. Use these things reasonably, depending on the type of your
audience, its size, venue and distance from the audience. A good use of these
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dimensions will attract and interest your audience, and your speech will have a
O

lasting impact.
(f) Posture and standing: Stand straight and look professional. Do not look tired
or lazy; do not make your audience disappointed by your physical appearance.
R
FO

Generally, the foundations of effective delivery of speech should be laid out well before
we step up to the podium. If you feel nervous about speaking in public, you should know
that it is normal to experience some communication apprehension, or “stage fright”,
when you deliver a speech. Learn how to deal with stage fright (anxiety). Prepare
carefully and practice your speech before you give it. Try relaxation techniques to deal
with your anxiety. Finally, set your tone while considering your language and style.

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Activity 7.3 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. Discuss with your fellow students what details you would include if you were asked
to make a speech during a Form One students’ orientation week.
2. Learn about techniques for dealing with communication apprehension. Do library
research as well as interviews. Find out how others deal with their anxiety. Identify
some of the techniques that will help you deal with communication apprehension.
3. Read the following short biographies of the former presidents, Nelson Mandela of
South Africa and Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere of Tanzania.

LY
Nelson Mandela (left) was the
first Black head of state in South
Africa. He came into power after

N
his release from prison where he
spent 27 years due to his struggles

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against the South African
Apartheid Regime. Mandela
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won the first democratically held Nelson Mandela (left) and Mwalimu Julius Nyerere (right)
presidential election in 1994
under the African National Congress (ANC). He died on 5th December, 2013.
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Julius Kambarage Nyerere (right) also led his country to independence from British
E

colonial rule on 9th December, 1961. He became the head of state and led his country
ever since until 1985 when he stepped down. Known as the Father of the Nation, he
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remained a strong and dependable political advisor to his party and the government
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until his death on 14th October, 1999.

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4. Read aloud the following speech delivered by the former President of South Africa,
His Excellency Nelson Mandela, at a banquet in honour of Julius Nyerere in
O

Johannesburg on 17th October 1997, using appropriate stress and intonation.

R

Master of Ceremonies, Mwalimu Julius Nyerere, Mr Nicky Oppenheimer, Honoured

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guests. It is a great pleasure to share in this occasion honouring one of Africa’s great
patriots. It is a humbling experience to recall the contribution that Mwalimu Nyerere
has made to the liberation of our continent, and to freedom in South Africa.
This is the freedom fighter who heard Chief Luthuli’s appeal and joined Trevor
Huddleston in launching the Anti-Apartheid Movement in Britain in 1959; a leader
whose decisive intervention at the Commonwealth Conference after the Sharpeville
Massacre led to the exclusion of apartheid in South Africa.

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I had the personal privilege of FOR ONLINE

meeting him USE
many ONLY
years ago, in 1962, when I visited
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Tanzania seeking help as we embarked on the armed struggle. Then, as now, I was struck
by his lucid thoughts; his burning desire for justice everywhere, and his commitment
to Africa’s interests.
After the independence of Tanzania, Mwalimu, as the head of state, continued to play
an important role in the struggle for justice and democracy not only in Africa but
throughout the world.
The people of Tanzania gave unstinting support to the liberation of South Africa. They
gave recognition of the most practical kind to the principle that our freedom and theirs
were interdependent.

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Today as free nations, we have joined hands in recognition of the interdependence of
our countries, our region and our continent in the achievement of peace and prosperity.

N
It is in this spirit that we affirm our support for Julius and the people of Tanzania in the
goals they have set for themselves.

O
The expansion of economic ties of trade and investment between Tanzania and South
Africa, and indeed between all the countries of the region, is an objective to which
South Africa is firmly committed.
SE
When we promote foreign business interest and investment in South Africa, it is not in
U
any spirit of beggar from the neighbour. Indeed, South African firms have seized the
opportunities that abound in a liberated Southern Africa and we encourage them in this.
E

We do so, on the understanding that such investment will be conducted as we expected

foreign investors to do in our own country: to promote the transfer of skills and
N

technology; to make a permanent and sustainable expansion in the productive capacity

LI

of the host country; and wherever possible in the form of joint ventures to promote
the development of local business, especially amongst those previously excluded from
N

such opportunities.
O

Such a development is in the interest of our entire region. In particular, we would like to
see an expansion of South African business involvement in Tanzania along such lines.
Some of the companies represented here tonight have already shown their interest by
R

taking part earlier this year in a delegation to Tanzania led by our Deputy Minister of
FO

Trade and Industry.

That delegation reflected the spirit of co-operation between government and business,
within a broader partnership of all social sectors which is the hallmark of reconstruction
and development in South Africa, in Tanzania and throughout our region.
Non-governmental organisations form an essential component of that broader
partnership. The Mwalimu Nyerere Foundation whose establishment we are marking
tonight is, I am confident, destined to make a significant contribution in that regard.

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There would not be a reason good FOR ONLINE

enough USE ONLY
to welcome its formation as a commemoration
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of a great person. But it is more than that. It is also a contribution to the future. It gives
substance to the goal of creating African capacity to resolve African problems.
The ideals of peace, unity and people-centred development for which it stands are
essential for our continent’s economic and political revival. We can only applaud its
intention to promote these goals by drawing on Africa’s collective intellectual resources.
It is through the upliftment and empowerment of the people of Southern Africa, and
indeed the entire continent, that we will achieve the African Renaissance we so strongly
desire.

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I thank you.
Source: Office of the President – SA

N
Exercise

O
(a) Explain the purpose of the speech.
(b) How is the speech organised?
(c) What features make this speech interesting? SE
U
Activity 7.4
E

1. Re-read the speech to your fellow students and ask them to comment on your tone.
N

2. On YouTube or any other media, listen to the full speech by His Excellency Nelson
Mandela delivered on 17th October 1997 in honour of Julius Kambarage Nyerere.
LI

Then identify the most interesting part of the speech. Are there any words or phrases
repeated in the speech? If there are, why do you think they are repeated?
N

3. Imagine you were Mwalimu Julius Nyerere. Prepare a brief response to the speech.
O

4. Go to www.youtube.com and type the name of a speaker you want to watch him/
her delivering a speech. Think about what you may emulate, as well as what you
R

might avoid.
FO

Activity 7.5
1. Prepare a brief speech on one of the following themes which you will deliver
in class:
(a) women’s rights
(b) children’s rights
(c) agriculture in Tanzania
(d) importance of census
(e) school drop outs

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FOR
2. Reflect on the speech you ONLINE
have USEinONLY
delivered class and explain what part of your
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speech you did well and what part needed more improvements.
Telephone conversation
Activity 7.6
Talk with a friend on the phone about your experience when you visited an interesting
place and answer the following questions:
(a) How did you make the call (dialling the numbers)?
(b) What did your friend say first when he/she answered your call?
(c) How would you describe your friend’s stress and intonation?

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(d) What did you tell your friend?
(e) What did your friend tell you?
(f) How did you end your conversation?

N
Telephone conversations are common today. In busy market-places, commercial towns

O
and cities, and in public places, people engage in telephone conversations for different
purposes. Telephone conversations are types of communication which involve using
SE
telephones (sometimes called phones) or mobile phones. These conversations normally
involve two people: the caller and the receiver. However, with improved technology,
more than two people can participate in a telephone conversation commonly called
U
teleconference.
To participate in a telephone conversation, the participants should have phones which
E

are connected to each other. The phones may be those connected via landlines (cables)
N

or they may be mobile phones. The two types of phone are illustrated below.
LI
N
O
R
FO

Land line phone Mobile phone

Figure 7.2 Phones

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In the recent past, in cities, there ONLINE
were publicUSE ONLY
phones which could be used by passers-
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by. The phones were placed in designated places; some were situated in public places
and buildings, and others were in booths. People inserted coins into the pay-in-box in
order to make calls. The pictures below are examples of public phones.

LY
N
O
SE
A telephone booth A phone on a stand
U
Figure 7.3 Public telephones
E

Generally, telephone conversations are not as long as face-to-face conversations

because of the cost of the airtime charged per second or minute. Different telephone
N

companies charge differently, but in all cases, there is a charge which makes people
LI

minimise the cost by shortening the time spent during the phone calls.

Telephone conversations use specialised vocabulary that is important to know for

N

effective engagement. The vocabulary used in the telephone conversations, when

O

someone calls you and the phone makes a sound - we say the phone is ringing. If you
are available, you pick up the telephone or an answer the telephone in order to talk to
the person. If there is nobody to answer the phone, then the caller may leave a message
R

on an answering machine or voicemail. Later, you can call back or return the call. To
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make a phone call, one starts by dialling the numbers. When you call a friend, but he/
she is already on the phone with someone else, you will hear a busy signal - a beeping
sound that tells you that the other person is currently using the phone or, in mobile
phones, you can be told the person is “on another call” or “is not available at present.”
Sometimes when you call a company, they put you on hold. This is when you wait
for your call to be answered - usually while listening to music. Finally, when you are
finished with the conversation, you hang up.

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Activity 7.7 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Having learned the basic telephone vocabulary, role-play with a friend the following
telephone conversation between Joyce and Samuel. You will learn some useful English
phrases for talking on the phone.
Joyce: [dials a number]
Samuel: [phone rings, picks it up] Hello, good morning. Samuel speaking.
Joyce: Oh! It is you. I’m Joyce.
Samuel: I hope all’s well with you.
Joyce: It is. I’m wondering if I can talk to Faraji.

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Samuel: I’m afraid Faraji is out at the moment. Would you like to leave a message?
Joyce: Ohm...actually...we talked yesterday about delivering the doctor’s dust

N
coat... Did he tell you anything about that?

O
Samuel: Yes. He said the doctor would send his Assistant today. He also asked me
to ask if he could start designing the Matron’s set.
Joyce: SE
Great! I’d love to see the patterns before you begin cutting them.
Samuel: Well, we still haven’t received the white fabrics from the supplier.
U
Joyce: Oh! I’m sorry to hear that. I’ve spoken with our supplier and he assured
me that the fabrics will be delivered tomorrow morning.
E

Samuel: Excellent. I’m sure Faraji will be pleased to hear that.

N

Joyce: Alright. Bye for now.

LI

Samuel: Thank you for calling. Goodbye.

N

Exercise
O

1. How many people are involved in the telephone conversation?

2. What are they talking about?
R

3. Who is Faraji according to the conversation?

4. Write a message for Faraji.
FO

From the dialogue in Activity 7.7 you have learned phrases for beginning a phone call,
talking and leaving a message, checking and clarifying information and finishing a
phone call. In the following sections you will learn the phrases which are commonly
used to begin and end a call. You will also learn how to leave a message in case the
receiver is unavailable and how to request clarification or confirmation of information.

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(a) Beginning a phone call FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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When Samuel answers the phone, he says, “Hello, good morning. Samuel speaking.”
This is a common way for a person responding to a phone call. Here are a couple of
alternatives:
• “Hello!”
• “Hello, how can I help you!”
• “Samuel talking, can I help you!”
• “Hello, who’s calling/speaking please!”
To introduce yourself, you can say “Hello, this is …” or “Hello, Samuel speaking, who

LY
am I talking to!” If you want to add your company or where you work, you can say:
“Hello, this is Samuel, Kinampanda High School!” Or “Hello, Samuel speaking from
Kinampanda High School!”

N
O
Then, you can ask to speak to somebody by using the phrases:
• “May I speak with …?”
• “Could I speak with …?”
• “May I talk to …?”
SE
• “Can I talk to …?”
U
You can also add a phrase, “I’m calling about …” or “I’m calling to …” in order to give
a reason for your call. Use “I’m calling about …” to introduce a topic, and “I’m calling
E

to …” to introduce an action.
N

• “I’m calling about the revision exercise which was provided by the English
teacher yesterday.”
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• “I’m calling to register for the upcoming study tour.”

N

To connect or transfer the call to another person you say, “One moment please - I’ll put
O

you through.” A few other phrases for transferring a call are:

• “please hold!”
R

• “I’ll transfer you!”

FO

(b) Talking/leaving a message

In the dialogue in Activity 7.7, Joyce wants to talk to Faraji but unfortunately he is
not available, and Samuel says, “I’m afraid Faraji is out at the moment.” Here are
additional phrases to use when another person cannot answer the phone call:
• “I’m sorry, he is on another call.”
• “I’m sorry, Faraji is not in his office right now.”
• “I’m sorry, he’s out of town at the moment.”
• “I’m sorry, he’s not available at the moment.”

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FOR ONLINE
Then, there are two common phrases that areUSE
usedONLY
for offering to take a message.
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• “Would you like to leave a message?”
• “Can I take a message?”
If you do not want to leave a message, you can say: “No thanks, I will call back later.”
There are two polite ways to leave a message. You can make a statement starting with
“please” or a question starting with “Could you …” usually followed by the verbs ask,
tell or remind and then “him” (if the message is for a man) and “her” (if the message
is for a woman).
• “Could you ask her to call me back?”
• “Please ask him to call me back.”

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• “Please tell him that the documents are ready.”
• “Please remind her that she has to submit her assignment before lunch.”
(c) Clarifying or confirming information

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While taking the message, you can ask the person who is leaving the message to check

O
or confirm the information if it is well taken or not. The phrases used are:
• “Let me read that back to you.”
• “Could you spell your name for me?”
(d) Finishing a call
SE
When you want to finish the conversation, you use “signal phrases” - these are phrases
U
indicating that the conversation is coming to an end. Some of these phrases include:
• “Well, it was nice talking with you.”
E

• “Thanks for calling.”

• “Thank you for calling.”
N

If you want to promise future contact, you can use one of the following phrases:
LI

• “I’ll get back to you soon.”

• “I’ll get in touch in a couple of days.”
N

• “I’ll call you back a little later.”

O

• “Talk to you soon.”

Then, you can finish the conversation with one of the following concluding phrases:
R

• “Have a nice day!”

• “Bye!”
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• “Take care!”

Activity 7.8
1. Prepare a telephone conversation on a topic of your choice and role-play it in
class.
2. With your fellow student(s), use the telephone conversation between Joyce and
Samuel to write the steps of making a telephone conversation.

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Panel discussions FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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A panel discussion involves a group of people selected to lead a discussion on a certain
topic. The selected group of people, in most cases, comprises a few professionals,
experts, or representatives of pressure groups (activists). These people share facts or
personal opinions on a subject and respond to the questions, opinions and issues raised
by the audience.
Depending on the setting of the discussion, the audience can be conference participants,
workshop participants, television viewers, listeners to a radio talk-show, and so on. In
television shows, there might be two sets of audiences. First, there is the audience
that participates in a live discussion. Second, there is the audience that follows the

LY
discussion from home, in public places and elsewhere. Sometimes the audience that
follows from elsewhere can call in and participate.
In every panel discussion, there is at least one moderator who keeps the discussion

N
on track. The moderator is the host of the event and mediates between the panellists

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and the audience, who may ask questions or seek clarification about the issues under
discussion.

Activity 7.9
SE
1. Discuss with your fellow student(s) the following questions and write answers in
U
your exercise books.
(a) What is a panel discussion?
(b) What is the purpose of a panel discussion?
E

(c) What categories of people are involved in panel discussions? Give reasons.
N

2. Categorise the audience needed in a radio talk-show.

LI

(a) Panel discussions 1 (on a television show)

N

Activity 7.10
O

1. Answer the following questions with your partner:

(a) What is COVID-19?
R

(b) When did you hear about it for the first time?
(c) What was your source of information and how did you react to it?
FO

(d) How reliable was the source? Why?

2. Study and role-play the following television panel discussion on COVID-19.
Moderator: This is the Tanzania Institute of Education TV, broadcasting live from
Dodoma, the capital of the United Republic of Tanzania. Thank you for joining us on
this programme. Our topic is “the dynamics of COVID-19”. I would like to welcome
all of you to the studio. Those who are viewing, welcome to the show. Currently, we are
all on edge because of the pandemic. In the absence of accurate information, we quarrel
and confuse the public, so we thought this session would be informative. We are, thus,

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honoured to have with us in theFOR ONLINE

studio USE ONLY
a number of experts. I am your host, Michele
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Kuyanja. We have four panellists; please, introduce yourselves, ladies and gentlemen.
[the panellists introduce themselves in turns].

Without further ado, I would like to call upon Dr Majura to break the ice. Dr Majura,
may you please give us your opinion on this topic.
Dr Majura: When a person is infected by COVID-19, antibodies do not appear
immediately. They are produced several days or up to two weeks after
the infection.
Moderator: Dr Kessy from MUZA University, Department of Public Health, what

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is your view?
Dr Kessy: The presence of antibodies in the body indicates that the person was

N
infected with the COVID-19 virus, irrespective of whether the individual
had a severe or mild illness, or even an asymptomatic infection.

O
Moderator: Dr Imani from Lobo Medical Research Institute, your response, please.
Dr Imani: SE
The surveillance of antibody seropositivity in a population makes
it possible to determine the extent of infection and the cumulative
incidence of infections in the population.
U
Moderator: Professor Ayub from the Department of Communicable Diseases,
MUZA University, what do you say?
E

Professor Ayub: The use of serology in epidemiology and public health research
N

enables us to understand how many people have mild or asymptomatic

infections, and who may not have been identified by routine disease
LI

surveillance.
Moderator: Again, thank you for contributing your knowledge about COVID-19.
N

We should now look at the prevention aspect. I ask you to suggest some
O

of the preventive measures that should be taken at the workplace. Please,

Professor Ayub, tell us about hand hygiene.
R

Professor Ayub: Hand hygiene measures include the following: regular and thorough
handwashing with soap and water or alcohol-based hand-rub before
FO

starting work, before eating, after being in contact with potentially

contaminated objects (gloves, clothing, masks, used tissues, waste) and
immediately after removing gloves and other protective equipment, but
before touching the eyes, the nose or the mouth.
Moderator: Dr Imani, please talk to us about respiratory hygiene.
Dr Imani: We should promote respiratory etiquette at the workplace. Ensure that
medical facemasks and paper tissue are available at the workplace,
for those who develop a runny nose or cough at work, there should be

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FORlids
bins available with ONLINE USE ONLY
for hygienic disposal of rubbish. Where masks
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are used, it is very important to ensure safe and proper use, care and
disposal of the masks.
Moderator: Now, Dr Kessy, what about social distancing at the workplace?
Dr Kessy: With regard to social distancing, let’s leave at least one metre between
persons and avoid direct physical contact with other persons (that is,
hugging, touching or shaking hands). We need to introduce strict control
over giving and receiving services. Other measures include reducing
the number of people in the buildings by allowing people to work from
home where possible.

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Moderator: Finally, Dr Majura, how do we manage interactions with people infected
by COVID-19?

N
Dr Majura: Workers who are unwell or who develop symptoms of COVID-19

O
should be advised to stay at home, self-isolate and contact medical
professionals or the local COVID-19 information line for advice.
SE
Where local community transmission is high and work continues,
provide telemedicine consultation where available or provide health
services on an emergency basis. Standard operating procedures should
U
be prepared to manage a person who becomes sick at the workplace
and is suspected of having COVID-19. This includes placing the person
in an isolation room, limiting the number of people in contact with
E

the victim, using personal protective equipment and doing follow-up

N

cleaning of offices.
LI

Moderator: We’re about to end our discussion. So, let’s summarise the points.
Dr Majura: The steps to prevent COVID-19 should be extended to the rest of the
N

community.
O

Dr Kessy: Vaccines are at least available at the moment. The Government should
encourage people to take as they are available for free.
R

Dr Imani: The Government should finance Lobo Medical Research Institute so

that it can produce vaccines and carry out more research on different
FO

aspects of the pandemic.

Professor Ayub: We should organise a conference of public health professionals and
political leaders to explore the challenges caused by COVID-19 and
appropriate measures to mitigate its effects on the community.
Moderator: Thank you for coming. Thank you also for your constructive ideas. We
will take all these ideas for further action. Our viewers, we thank you
for tuning in. This programme will continue next week. You can send
questions through the phone numbers that appear on the screen and

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FOR
our panellists will ONLINEtoUSE
respond ONLY
them during our next programme. Once
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again, thank you all. I am your host, Michele Kuyanja. See you then.
Bye!

Exercise
1. How would you define a panel discussion?
2. Who are the participants in the above panel discussion?
3. What is the meaning of each of the following words in the relevant context:
mitigate, pandemic, vaccine, takeaway, respiratory etiquette, antibodies

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and social distancing?
4. Summarise in three sentences the preventive measures against infections
recommended by the panellists?

N
O
Activity 7.11
Summarise the panel discussion you have read on COVID-19 in one paragraph.

Activity 7.12
SE
Prepare a panel discussion on one of the topics below and role-play it in class.
U
(a) action against waste disposal in the cities
(b) providing preventive services in our hospitals
E

(c) response to the spread of tuberculosis

N

(d) construction of a local dispensary

(e) training medical personnel
LI

(f) campaign against malnutrition

N

(b) Panel discussion 2 (face-to-face)

O

Activity 7.13
1. Pair up with your fellow student and hold a discussion on the topic School girls
R

dropout using the following guide questions:

FO

(a) Who is a school dropout?

(b) Why do boys and girls drop out of school?
(c) In your view, who is to blame when pupils and students drop out of school?
(d) How can we prevent students from dropping out of school?
2. Read aloud and act out the following panel discussion on school girls dropout.
Moderator: Thank you for attending our panel discussion.
In some regions, the dropout rates are very high, while in other regions
the rates are insignificant. The causes of the problem are many and varied.

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FOR to
This session is going ONLINE USE ONLY
dive deep into this issue. So, may I take this
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opportunity to welcome you all to the discussion.
I am your host, Fatima Shaban. We have six panellists with us today:
Ms Mwajabu Ramadhan, Assistant Education Secretary, Southern
Province
Mr John Joseph Jingili, Assistant Education Secretary, Northern Province
Mr Papa Mazingira, Assistant Education Secretary, Western Province
Ms Jane Abiudi, Assistant Director, Girls Empowerment Unit, Ministry
of Education – Recorder

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Ms Martha Mbuto, Director, Girls Empowerment Unit, Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology – Recorder

N
So, let’s start the discussion. Ms Ramadhan, please tell us what you think
could be the cause of girl drop outs?

O
Ms Mwajabu Ramadhan: First, thank you for having me. To start with, I would like
to make it clear that dropping out of school means leaving school for
SE
various reasons. Reports show that girls drop out of school more than
boys. Corporal punishment is one of the many reasons that keep girls out
of school.
U
Moderator: What do you think, Mr Jingili?
Mr John Joseph Jingili: I concur with Ms Mwajabu. In addition to that, girls face
E

sexual harassment and discrimination in schools. Bad enough, they

N

are expelled from school when they are found pregnant and others quit
when they get married. Many girls are prone to sexual harassment from
LI

promiscuous teachers, fellow male students and other adults. All these
make school unfriendly to girls.
N

Moderator: Mr Mazingira.
O

Mr Papa Mazingira: It really hurts when you talk of mistreatment that girls experience
in our society which leads them to stop attending school. Girls also
R

face sexual abuse from other people like – daladala drivers, daladala
conductors, bodaboda riders, bajaj drivers and adults who often ask for
FO

sex in exchange for gifts, money, favours or rides to and from school. It
is high time the community stopped abusing girls. Both girls and boys
have equal chances and rights to education. People should change this
bad behaviour. [He added emotionally.]
Moderator: Ms Mwajabu, anything else?
Ms Mwajabu Ramadhan: Mr Papa has put it correctly that girls are sexually abused.
Although, sexual abuse incidents, especially those involving teachers
and close family members of girl students, are normally not reported to

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FOR
the police. Schools ONLINE
protect theirUSE ONLYwhile families want to maintain
teachers
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the good relationships among family members.
Moderator: Mr Jingili, would you like to say something?
Mr Joseph Jingili: Yes, girls in most schools are obliged to undergo pregnancy tests,
and those who are found pregnant are expelled, which in my opinion,
expelling pregnant girls is not right. The education system should be
flexible to accommodate girls after giving birth.
Moderator: Mr Mazingira, do you have anything else to add?
Mr Papa Mazingira: Oh yeah! Lack of access to adequate sanitation facilities,

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especially with regard to menstrual hygiene, which prevents girls from
going to school during their monthly periods. The government should
improve the infrastructure and increase the availability of sanitation

N
facilities for girls in schools to make safe and friendly environment for
them.

O
Moderator: Mr Jingili, it looks like you want to say something.
Mr John Joseph Jingili: Yes, I do. Most girls stay out of school because of the limited
SE
options they have after dropping out. They are not readmitted. As Mr
Jingili has just said, the system of education should be flexible enough to
U
allow readmission of girls after dropping out.
Moderator: Ms Mwajabu, what do you recommend?
E

Ms Mwajabu Ramadhan: Abolish corporal punishment in schools. Whipping kids is

inhumane. Each school should provide qualified counsellors to help girls
N

cope with the challenges they face in their school life.

LI

Moderator: Mr Jingili
Mr John Joseph Jingili: Allow the girls who get pregnant to resume their studies after
N

their maternity break.

O

Moderator: Mr Mazingira!
Mr Papa Mazingira: Build hostels for girls to rescue them from sexual harassment by
R

male predators.
FO

Moderator: Thank you for coming and for your contribution. We appreciate your
interest in this very important topic. This discussion has been very
informative.
Exercise
1. Using the above conversation as an example of a good panel discussion,
explain to your fellow student(s) what a panel discussion is.
2. Who are the participants in the above discussion?
3. What recommendations have the panellists made?

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Activity 7.14 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. In groups, prepare a panel discussion on one of the following topics and role-play
it in class.
(a) proper maintenance of schools
(b) school feeding programmes
(c) ICT services in schools
(d) response to crowded schools
(e) education for teachers
(f) campaigns against COVID 19 in schools
2. Write in your exercise book the discussion you have role-played in class.

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Participating in a debate
Debates are not new in schools. Some schools have debating clubs. The clubs organise

N
sessions where students meet and argue for or against a motion. Winners are declared on
the basis of either the number of points made or the number of votes cast. Technically

O
speaking, a debate is a formal discussion on a particular subject which takes place at
a public meeting or in a legislative assembly, in which opposing arguments are put
SE
forward and debates usually end in a vote to determine the winner. In this way, debates
develop the skill of critical thinking.
U
Debates are commonly used in democratic societies to explore and resolve problems.
They are also very common in academic institutions, political parties, conferences,
meetings and workshops, as well as at socio-economic gatherings. Debates often lead
E

to constructive recommendations and decisions. Through debates, participants also

N

improve their note-taking skills and widen their comprehension of various topics and
themes. Debates also develop participants’ self-confidence to speak in public.
LI

Activity 7.15
N

Pair up with your fellow student and answer the following questions:
O

(a) If you have participated in a debate, identify the motion; explain the procedure
followed, and which side won.
R

(b) What challenges did you encounter in participating in that debate and what did
you do to solve the challenges?
FO

(c) What are the specific advantages of participating in debates?

(a) Organising debate competition in schools

In schools, debating sessions are organised under English clubs as one of their main
activities. The sessions involve students gathering in a hall under a matron or patron of
the club. The organisation of debates involves the following people: the chairperson,
secretary, time-keeper, principal speakers and members of the floor.

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The chairperson monitors all theFOR ONLINE in

activities USE
theONLY
debate. He/she opens the sessions,
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invites speakers, controls those who speak, announces the winners and closes the
sessions. Secretaries record and summarise the points made by both sides. At the end
of the discussion, each secretary reads out the points made.
The time-keeper, as the name suggests, keeps time. He/she monitors the time spent and
rings a bell to let the speakers know the time left. Time-keepers also ring bells to stop
speakers when their time to speak is over.
Regarding principal speakers, there are at least four of them: two on each side of the
motion. These are given more time to air their views than the other members of the
floor. Their role is to persuade the members of the floor to support them with convincing

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arguments. They also persuade the members to vote for or against the motion at the end
of the sessions. They are always given time to summarise their points and respond to

N
some issues raised after the members of the floor have finished talking.
The members of the floor are invited to speak after the principal speakers have finished

O
talking. The chairperson may invite them in turns. Those for the motion (proposers) and
those against the motion (opposers) alternate, or may speak freely without following
any specific order. SE
The matron or patron is the member of staff who oversees all the activities of the club.
In most cases, they are English teachers, though this is not always the case. Other
U
teachers with interest in the English language may equally be invited to the activities
of the club. Matrons and patrons speak after voting has ended. They normally take a
E

neutral position. They encourage students to speak out and challenge them to actively
N

participate in debating sessions. The matrons and patrons also provide direction and
clarify some of the concepts to broaden the students’ understanding.
LI

Activity 7.16
N

1. “Colonialism helped Africans to develop.” Debate this motion.

O

(a) Decide whether to propose or oppose the motion.

(b) Participate in the debate at the class level.
R

(c) Discuss with your fellow student(s) what you learned from the debate.
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(d) Prepare and present orally a summary of the proceedings of the debate.

2. Study the debate topics below and organise a debate in class.

(a) Mobile devices (cell phones, smartphones) should not be allowed in schools.
(b) Modern social media make people less socially active.
(c) Higher education is a prerequisite for success in life.
(d) The death penalty should be abolished in Tanzania.

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(e) Drug addicts should be FOR ONLINE

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and not ONLY
punished.
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(f) Limiting the terms of members of parliament causes more harm than good.
(g) Teenage girls should have access to birth control measures without parental
supervision.
(h) Wealthy people should pay taxes not the poor.
Participating in live-television or radio talk shows
Television and radio phone in programmes are special programmes aimed to share
someone’s life experience and ideas. The person invited to the show is called the ‘guest’
and normally guests share some aspects of their life stories. Most of the shows involve

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experts, innovators, artists, celebrities, ex-convicts, politicians and people with unique
attributes who are invited in the programme as guests. The shows use questions and
answers (Q&A). The hosts ask the guests strategic questions, which give the guests

N
room to express themselves. What makes these shows interesting is the freedom the

O
hosts have to ask the guests. Some of the questions touch on controversial aspects of
people’s lives. During the shows, the hosts allow viewers and listeners to make phone
calls, ask questions or comment on certain aspects of the stories told. The people who
SE
share their stories respond to the questions and comments from the callers.

Activity 7.17
U
1. Answer the following questions:
(a) Have you ever viewed or listened to a television talk-show?
E

(b) What was the show about?

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(c) Did you enjoy it? Why?

(d) Did you call to ask a question or express your opinion?
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(e) How were your questions or views responded to?

2. Read aloud the following text on a television show involving Shamira Thomson
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whose first novel has been received with critical acclaim. The show discusses the
O

content of her novel versus Shamira’s personal experience.

Host: Good evening, viewers. Welcome to this week’s edition of our Q&A
R

programme. I’m Hoita Mbaruku, the host of this programme. Today,

we have Shamira Thomson with us in the studio. Her first novel,
FO

Justice will Prevail, published by Migomba Publications, has already

become very popular with novel lovers. Ms Shamira, welcome to the
programme.
Shamira Thomson: Thank you, Hoita. My pleasure to be here.
Host: Can you talk to us a little bit about your first novel?
Shamira Thomson: Yes. This novel is about Juhudi Chapakazi, a senior public
officer, who is wrongly accused of embezzling government funds.

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Host: Can you tell us FOR

moreONLINE USE
about this ONLY
character?
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Shamira Thomson: Yes. Mr Chapakazi’s department had secured funds from
donors to build a highway. The highway was estimated to cost about
ten million US dollars.
Host: So, what happened?
Shamira Thomson: Since the project of that magnitude was rare in the country,
it caught the interest of his superiors at the ministry’s headquarters,
including the Minister for Works.
Host: It was a huge project indeed.
Shamira Thomson: Word went around the construction community that the project

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was in the offing and tenders had already been advertised, though
unofficially, through the Department’s Procurement and Accounts Unit

N
without Mr Chapakazi’s knowledge.
Host: What happened next?

O
Shamira Thomson: Before the Department’s Procurement Unit had prepared the
documents, contractors had started shuttling between Mr Chapakazi’s
SE
office, the Minister’s office and other Ministerial influential offices
seeking preferential treatment.
Host: Interesting. What happened thereafter?
U
Shamira Thomson: Mr Chapakazi had strong principles. Some of his corrupt
superiors knew that well. Sometimes, they regretted their decision to
E

put him in that position. However, some urgent action had to be taken
N

before the tenders were made public.

Host: What action?
LI

Shamira Thomson: Mr Chapakazi had to go.

N

Host: Go!
Shamira Thomson: Yes, get rid of him.
O

Host: How?
R

Shamira Thomson: The Minister ordered an urgent audit of the department’s

previous projects. The report submitted by the auditors found the
FO

projects accounts were very impressive and clean.

Host: Very clean!
Shamira Thomson: Yes, very clean. A very undesirable finding. But Mr Chapakazi
still had to go. So, the auditors were ordered to amend the report to
include large sums of money which had been paid illegally, thus
causing a big loss.
Host: Did that happen?
Shamira Thomson: Yes, it did. Mr Chapakazi was arrested and accused of

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misappropriating FORpublic
ONLINE funds, pending investigations. He was
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remanded for four years on the pretext that investigations were still
going on.
Host: How did the story end?
Shamira Thomson: I urge the readers to read the novel to learn how it ended. It is
a fascinating piece of work.
Host: Thank you very much, Ms Shamira, for your interesting story. I hope
viewers have got a lot to ask and or make comments on what you have
said. Viewers, now is your time to ask questions or comment if you
have any. Call the numbers found on your screen. Please be brief and

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direct to the point.
Viewers: Hello! This Kenge Mitomingi speaking. I’m calling from Mtakuja
Village in Nanyamba District. I’d like to ask Ms Shamira how her life

N
experience has shaped or influenced her story in the novel.

O
Viewers: [severall calls from viewers]
--------
Host: SE
[After a long discussion, the host closes the discussion] Thank you, once
again viewers for your time. We will meet again next week. Goodbye!
U
Activity 7.18
1. Answer orally the following questions on the Q&A show that you have read:
E

(i) What is the Q&A about?

N

(ii) Who is the main character in the novel?

(iii) Who are the other characters?
LI

(iv) What is the theme?

(v) Who is the author?
N

(vi) What happened to Mr Chapakazi?

O

(vii) What lessons have you learned from Mr Chapakazi?

2. Role-play the above Q&A session.
3. In groups, role-play any Q&A activity of your choice and write in your exercise
R

book the discussion that you have role-played.

FO

Public rally
Activity 7.19

1. Answer the following questions orally:

(a) Have you ever attended a Q&A political session?
(b) What was it about?
(c) Did you enjoy it? Why?

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FOR
2. Read the following text about ONLINE USE
a political ONLY
meeting:
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Honourable Kicheria Pondamali is the new Member of Parliament for Mlingani
Constituency. He has organised a short Q&A session for his constituents at his
party’s offices. The host is the Party District Chairperson.
Party Chairperson: Good afternoon, wananchi. Welcome to this public Q&A meeting
requested by our Member of Parliament, the Honourable Kicheria
Pondamali. I’m Ayub Manelenge, the Party Chairperson for Mlingani.
The MP is accompanied by Mama Tina, who is the District Party
Publicity Secretary. Please greet them [Mama Tina stands up, waves her
right hand and sits down again]. The MP is also accompanied by Mr

LY
Gobori, his Personal Assistant [Mr Gobori stands up, waves his right
hand and sits down again]. There are also other dignitaries with them.
Would you please stand up and wave at our people [the dignitaries stand

N
up, wave their right hands in unison and sit down again].

O
This is the Honourable Pondamali’s first term after the former member
declined to contest again. Honourable Pondamali has sufficient
SE
experience in public service. He is very familiar with this constituency as
he taught physics in secondary schools for eight years in the neighbouring
constituency. He was also the head of secondary schools for ten years;
U
most of his experience was gained at Mkesheni Secondary School,
Mlingani. He was later promoted to the post of District Education
E

Officer, Mlingani District.

N

After five years of service in that capacity, the Honourable Pondamali

contested a parliamentary seat and won.
LI

Mr Pondamali: [standing up and bowing in different directions as he waves his hands

N

to acknowledge the people and sits down again.]

Party Chairperson: I think it is time to allow our beloved MP to greet us.
O

Mr Pondamali: [standing up and waving his left hand) Viva Mlinganiiiiiiiii!

R

The people: (standing, raising clenched fists and shouting): Vivaaaaaaaaaa!

Mr Pondamali: Viva Mlinganiiiiiiiii!
FO

The People: Vivaaaaaaaaaa!

Mr Pondamali: Viva Mlinganiiiiiiiii!
The People: Vivaaaaaaaaaa!
Mr Pondamali: I’m pleased. I’m pleased to stand here today as your representative.
I want to thank you all for voting for me. I will work hard to serve you.
Having said so, I would like to focus on today’s agenda. I suggest that I

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FORanswer
take three questions, ONLINE USEand
them ONLY
then take another three, and so on.
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Viva Mlinganiiiiiiiii!
The People: Vivaaaaaaaaaa!
Party Chairperson: I can see many hands are raised. Let me pick the first three. The
head of school, Mr Mabuja, the clinical officer from our health centre,
Mrs Ngoso and our community elder, Mr Kazibure. Give the microphone
to the headmaster, please!
Headmaster: Honourable MP, I would like to congratulate you on your victory. Your
former school is completely run down. It needs some renovation. When

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will you renovate it?
Party Chairperson: Mrs Ngoso, please.

N
Mrs Ngoso: Honourable MP, we have a similar problem at our health centre. Since
the health centre was opened fifteen years ago, nobody has ever come

O
to inspect its condition. Termites have eaten away the doorframes, the
doors cannot close, the toilets have broken down and the maternity clinic
SE
has only ten beds. Expectant mothers sleep on the floor, in many cases
without mattresses. There are leaks in certain parts of the roof and parts
of the ceiling have rotted. It’s terrible. We have to take action now.
U
Party Chairperson: Mr Kazibure, it’s your turn.
Mr Kazibure: Thank you, Mr Chairperson. I would like to congratulate our son on his
E

victory. It is our victory. I’m sure all of us, including the MP, know very
N

well that the water supply system has collapsed and needs a complete
overhaul. How soon will the water supply system be restored?
LI

Party Chairperson: It’s now time for our MP to respond to our questions.
N

MP Pondamali: Thank you, Mr Chairperson. Let me respond first to the problem related
to the school the headmaster talked about. The Ministry of Education has
O

initiated a project to renovate all the old schools. However, the Ministry
will start with the schools in the capital this financial year. Our school
R

will be renovated in the next financial year. So let’s be patient.

FO

Concerning the health centre, during our first meeting in the district
council, we said our health centre was a priority project. You will see
things happening pretty soon.
The water supply problem is a big challenge. We have been holding
talks with some local philanthropic organisations and our friendly local
business actors to encourage them to support us in that endeavour. We
may get some assistance, but we need a technical team to evaluate the
project so that a decision based on data can be reached.

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FOR ONLINE
How long the decision USE ONLY
takes, depends on us continuing to remind them
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through our links. And we are doing that all the time. They say that
we may be asked to contribute some money. We should, therefore, be
prepared to raise the money.
Party Chairperson: (people applauding) Thank you, Sir. You can see the people’s
response for yourself. Let’s have three more questions. Mama Amina,
Mr Chaki and Ms Taji. Mama Amina, please ask your questions!
Mama Amina: Thank you very much, Honourable MP. The District Government took
two acres of land near the primary school from me to expand the school
compound and the sports grounds, promising that I would be given four

LY
acres of land near the river in compensation for my land. The school
buildings have been built and the sports grounds are already in use, but

N
I have not received any compensation to date. Three years have passed
since they took away my land. Please, help me.

O
Party Chairperson: It is your turn, Mr Chaki.
Mr Chaki: Thank you, Chairperson. Some of the staff at our health centre are very
SE
rude to the patients. Only people with big names get good treatment.
Please, can the rude staff be replaced with good ethical workers? [people
applauding]
U
Party Chairperson: It is now Ms Taji’s turn. After the response from our Honourable
MP, we shall close the session so that he can go to attend another meeting
E

in the neighbouring ward.

N

Ms Taji: Thank you. My father, who has been admitted to hospital, is a retired
LI

game officer. Since his retirement two years ago, he has not received his
retirement benefits. Please, can you help him to get his benefits?
N

Party Chairperson: Mr Pondamali, our Honourable MP, please!

O

MP Pondamali: Thank you, once again, Mr Chairperson. Mama Amina, we are sorry
that you have not received the compensation that you so much deserve.
R

Since the District Executive Officer is not with us here, I will report the
matter to him and its outcome will be communicated to you through your
FO

Chairperson in one week’s time.

Now, Mr Chaki and the rude health workers. How many of you share the
opinion of Mr Chaki? Raise up your hands.
[after a pause] Ok! It seems the majority feel the same. We wish to
apologise on behalf of the Government for whatever has happened. I
will take the matter to the District Executive Officer and the District
Medical Officer. The Clinical Officer is here, but this may not be her
responsibility.

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FORfor
Ms Taji, I feel sorry ONLINE USE ONLY parent. If you provide us with
your indisposed
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his pension particulars at the end of this session, I will appreciate it. My
colleagues will follow up in my absence as I’ll be busy carrying out
parliamentary assignments in Dodoma.
Thank you all for your attention.
Party Chairperson: Thank you very much, Sir. You may have noticed that many hands
were raised, but we picked only a few. I hope you will organise another
meeting soon so that your voters have time to talk with you. If you have
a word before you leave, welcome.

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People: [clapping hands, cheering and ululating]
MP Pondamali: [bowing in different directions and spreading his two hands] Thank
you so much for turning up in big numbers. I’ve another meeting in the

N
afternoon, so please allow me to leave now. [standing up and raising his

O
left hand high]: Viva Mlinganiiiiiiiii! [repeating three times]
People: Vivaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa (three times)

Activity 7.20
SE
U
In groups, discuss the following questions:
1. Who is MP Pondamali?
E

2. What was the purpose of the visit?

N

3. What questions did the people ask?

4. Do you think the MP’s responses were satisfactory? Why?
LI

5. Prepare and act out a dialogue about a political gathering. Use participants and
N

topic of your choice. Write the dialogue in your exercise book.

O

Reflection
1. What have you learned from this chapter?
R

2. Write any five things of which you need clarification.

FO

3. What would you do to improve your public speaking skills?

4. How would you deal with stage fright?

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 Mastering reading skills

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Eight Mastering reading skills

Introduction
Developing and mastering a variety of reading skills is very essential in life. We

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normally read for information, knowledge and leisure or recreation. In your studies,
for example, you need to read much for academic success and your sustainable
development in future. You need to read both extensively and intensively different

N
types of publications such as books, journals, newspapers and literary works.
This chapter introduces you to the meaning of reading and its processes. You will

O
also learn different reading styles and do various activities and exercises. The
competencies developed from reading this chapter will enable you to master reading
SE
skills, become an efficient reader and do activities such as note taking, paraphrasing
and summarising information.
U
Reading for general and specific information
E

Reading is a familiar concept to you since your school life has made you read various
books on different subjects. When reading, you have faced different challenges such
N

as the length of a text and a limited time to read a lot of information. However, you
LI

did your best to overcome all these challenges to make your reading a success. In
this context, sharing experiences with others is useful while you are all thinking about
N

reading. Now, pair up with your fellow student and answer the following questions
orally:
O

Exercise
R

1. How do you read a newspaper before you decide to buy it? Why do you do
FO

so?
2. How do you read a textbook to answer a question in an assignment given to
you?
3. How do you read a storybook to understand the story?
4. Why do readers change their reading techniques?

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Activity 8.1 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Read the following text and do the exercise that follow in groups.
Reading is a process of looking at a series of written symbols or printed words to get
meaning or information. This is an active process that involves thinking. Research
shows that reading skills are an important part of human development and contribute to
success in life. Most of the successful people are avid readers. Reading skills develop
gradually, and as such, they need to be reinforced with more readings. The specific
term used to refer to the tendency to willingly read extensively is “reading culture”.
This culture is not built as a result of pressures from teachers or examinations. It comes
from an internal drive.

LY
There are different reading materials that people interact with. They include, but are
not limited to, letters, memoranda, emails, books, newspapers, novels, storybooks,

N
plays, holy books, speeches, social media, textbooks, and other books on areas one
is interested in. These materials differ in terms of structure, size, content, language

O
and genre. Reading categories also differ, depending on the age, level of education,
economy and many other social influences. However, people generally read to search
for information, to learn and for enjoyment. SE
Exercise
U
1. Why do we say that reading is an active process?
2. From the text and your own experience, why is reading important to everyone?
E

3. Why is it difficult for some people to develop a reading culture?

4. Why do people read?
N
LI

Developing reading techniques

N

Efficient readers do not always employ one reading technique. Readers will have one
style when reading, for instance, a poem, and adopt yet another style when reading
O

a novel. Again, readers can employ a completely different style when they read a
textbook or a newspaper. This implies that efficient readers need to have various reading
R

techniques that help them to read productively. The most important thing for a reader is
to know the purpose of reading before deciding on the technique to use. Since you have
FO

been reading for some years, you are probably aware of different reading purposes.

Activity 8.2
In pairs, discuss and answer the following questions:
1. Discuss the things that make one loose focus while reading and the ways to
overcome them?
2. Why understanding the reading techniques is important?

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FOR
In your discussion, you must have ONLINE
come USEa ONLY
up with very long list of purposes, depending
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on your analysis. In this book, reading is considered to have three main purposes,
apart from enjoyment, reading for general information, reading for specific information
and reading for details. These three purposes are addressed through three reading
techniques, namely skimming, scanning and intensive reading.
Skimming
Skimming is a reading technique whereby the reader goes quickly through a text to get
the gist. The gist refers to the overall picture of the information obtained by reading a
text quickly. Through this technique, the reader takes a text and peruses certain parts
of it quickly to understand the general information. To better understand how this

LY
technique works, read the table of contents of this book. Spend no more than two
minutes reading the table. This kind of reading helps you to get the general picture of
what this book is about.

N
For effective skimming, read the table of contents (if it is a book); read the entire

O
introduction; go through the main headings or topics and sub-topics; read the first and
last sentence in each paragraph; read chapter summaries (if available); take note of
SE
anything seen in the pictures, charts, diagrams and illustrations (if available); read the
concluding paragraphs and then summarise the general information.
The general purpose of skimming is to give the reader a general idea about the content.
U
Nuances, important details and caveats are left out as they require close reading.
E

Activity 8.3
N

Pair up with your fellow student and discuss the following:

1. What does one focus on when skimming a text?
LI

2. How would you successfully skim a well-written paragraph?

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of skimming a text?
N

Scanning
O

Unlike skimming, scanning is a reading technique that targets specific information. This
technique requires someone to look for specific details to get specific information. In
R

other words, scanning is a selective type of reading where the reader reads for specific
details. This technique is used after the reader has obtained general information, but
FO

needs to get certain details as well or if the reader only needs certain information.
Readers can scan something to get details such as the meanings of words in the
dictionary, phone numbers in a phonebook, detailed information in a particular topic or
sub-topic and specific news details from particular news headlines, or they can look for
information relevant to an assignment they have to write or a topic they are interested
in.
In the previous section, you were asked to read the table of contents in this book to get
the general information. From reading the table of content, you may have probably

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FOR
understood that, one of the skills ONLINE
covered inUSE ONLYis reading skills. However, you
the book
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did not see the details covered. Therefore, when you come to Chapter Eight and read
all the topics and sub-topics to get detailed information about reading skills, means
you will be scanning the chapter. Once again, for effective scanning, decide in advance
what questions you want to answer, for example questions on names (who?), quantity
(how much?), time (when?), and actions (what happened?). Read quickly and search
for clues to answer your questions. Find out which words or numbers will enable you
to answer your questions. Check your answers and slow down so that you can read the
information you have scanned carefully.

Activity 8.4

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1. In groups, answer the following questions:
(a) What techniques are used in scanning a text?

N
(b) What challenges do you encounter while scanning a text and what do you do to
solve the challenges?

O
(c) Why do we use the scanning technique in reading?

SE
2. Describe how you would obtain specific information from each of the following
sources:
(a) a newspaper
U
(b) a chapter in a textbook
(c) a glossary
E

(d) a textbook
N

Intensive reading
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Intensive reading is reading for details and is determined by the reader’s purpose, needs
N

and goals. The type and techniques of reading determine the reader’s accuracy and
success in reading.
O

Activity 8.5
R

In pairs, answer the following questions orally:

(a) What do you normally do before reading a text to do an assignment?
FO

(b) What do you normally do while reading a text to do an assignment?

(c) What do you normally do after reading a text to do an assignment?
Intensive reading refers to reading a text with full concentration paying attention to
all the information and how it is presented in a text. It differs from skimming and
scanning, since the reader is not selective, but rather attempts to understand the entire
text. It is mainly used for academic purposes. One of the notable characteristics of this
kind of reading is that readers, who are most often students, select relevant reference
materials and read them to understand in detail a particular issue.

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Developing reading speed FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Students are often given several tasks that require them to read intensively. However,
while some students think it is impossible to read something thoroughly, others do it
successfully. However, reading speed depends on the kind of reading you need.

Exercise
1. How do you plan your reading when you focus on a specific problem?
2. In what ways do reading techniques guide you when you are reading?
3. What is your general understanding of a good reading speed?

LY
From your discussion, you have probably noticed that good reading speed in intensive

N
reading has nothing to do with how many words you can read per minute, but how you
can employ reading techniques successfully to solve the problems which made you

O
read. Good reading speed begins with understanding the reason for reading, what to
read and how to read it within a given time frame. It begins with the planning of the
SE
activities to be done in each stage. Most people read at an average of 250 words per
minute (wpm), though some are naturally quicker than others. The ability to speed read
could mean that you double this rate. We will explore some of the skills that you can
U
use to accelerate your reading.

Activity 8.6
E

Read from at least any five relevant sources and give a thorough description of what
N

intensive reading is.

LI

How to speed read

Reading fast requires one to avoid in pronouncing and ‘hearing’ each word in your
N

head as you read it (sub-vocalisation). It requires one to skim lines or groups of words,
O

as one can understand words more quickly than you can say them.
One way to stop yourself from sub-vocalisation is to focus on blocks of words rather
R

than on individual ones. You do this by relaxing your face or expanding your gaze on
the page, so that you stop seeing words as single, distinct units. As you practise this,
FO

your eyes will skip faster across the page. When you approach the end of a line, allow
your peripheral vision to take your eyes to the final set of words. This will help to stop
pauses in your reading, meaning that you scan across and down to the next line more
quickly.
When to speed read
An effective speed reading is a balance between pace and comprehension. Studies have
shown that the faster you read, the less information you take in, particularly when it

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comes to remembering detail. When USE
you need to ONLY
understand only the basic arguments
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or conclusions being presented, using a speed reading technique can work. It also
important to use speed reading techniques when you intend to go back to re-read the
text slowly when you are less busy.
How to improve your speed in reading
Knowing the ‘how’ and ‘when’ to read with an increased speed is only the first step to
success of reading. Here are some more tips to help you.
(i) Avoid distraction: crate an environment where there are a few interruptions and
distractions as possible to allow you to focus fully on the words in front of you;

LY
(ii) Select easy texts to read: read an uncomplicated material to get a feel for which
technique is going to work best for you;

N
(iii) Do not repeat reading words that you have read: you can cover words that you

O
have read to help you avoid your eyes flitting back to earlier words and slowing
down your reading; and

SE
(iv) Know what you want from the text: this will help you pay attention to relevant
words, phrases or sentences that you see. You can then slow down at these
points or circle them for emphasis, but otherwise move across the page quickly.
U
(v) Benchmark your progress: this way you can tell whether your practice is
effective. There are many free speed reading assessments online, such as at
E

www.readingsoft.com that you can access for your practices.

N

Inferring meaning from a context

LI

Readers should be able to interpret a text to understand the message being communicated.
N

Understanding the meaning of a word or phrase is a significant part of reading. You

have been doing it in different ways throughout your reading.
O

Activity 8.7
R

In pairs, answer the following questions orally.

FO

(a) What do you normally do to get the meanings of the words you do not
understand?
(b) In which situation do you use a dictionary to get the meanings of such words?
(c) What do you normally do after realising that a dictionary does not help you to
get the meanings of certain words?
(d) Study the text following to identify words whose meanings cannot be obtained
from a dictionary.

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ASBO for homeless man
John James, of no fixed address, was convicted at District Magestrate Court of
one offence of possessing an offensive weapon and two charges of harassment.
It follows complaints that he acted in an anti-social manner where he used to
live in Kenyatta Road, Kinondoni.
He was given a seven-month jail term, but freed due to the time spent in custody.
(Adopted from Lindsay and Knight, 2006:70)

LY
In some cases, parts of the meaning of a text are not explicitly stated. The best ways

N
to understand the text presented above are explained in this book. However, they are
not exhaustive; other ways may be used to get the meanings of words, phrases or signs

O
from the context. You need to explore the text that appears before or after the word to
get such meanings.
SE
The text that appears before and after a word or phrase is called a co-text. For example,
in the poem by Joe Corrie, the word “bloody grass” may not be meaningful if it is
U
taken out of context, but the meaning may be obtained by inferring it from the context.
In that context, it is used to mean “low-quality food” or “easily available food.” This
E

is because the persona is complaining about the slogan, which asks them to eat foods
they cannot afford, since they are unemployed. The persona uses the expression “the
N

only one which can suit me…” to mean the food which the poor or the unemployed
LI

can afford.
The co-texts of the word order are “anti-social behaviour order”. Thus, the word is a
N

noun. Out of context, its meaning would be different. This is to say that a word may
have different meanings in different contexts. In order for readers to infer the meanings
O

of expressions easily, they need to have the basic knowledge of word categories and
their role in communication. A reader needs to know the characteristics of nouns, verbs,
R

adverbs, adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns and exclamations. One also

FO

needs to understand the subject and predicate (henceforth S-P). The knowledge of
S-P helps one to understand when actions are described and who did the actions. For
example, in the text above, the following terms are used to refer to the subject of the
actions: “homeless man,” “John James,” and “he”. The events described are complaints,
conviction, possession of an offensive weapon, and harassment.

Activity 8.8
In groups, identify different ways of inferring the meanings of difficult words described
in the text you have read.

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FORideas
Obtaining detailed information, ONLINE
andUSE ONLYfrom the text
opinions
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Reading long and complicated texts requires careful attention. Scanning improves your
reading speed and reading intensively. Careful reading helps you to obtain detailed
information, ideas and opinions from texts. In pairs, answer the questions in the
subsequent activity orally.
Activity 8.9
(a) What do you normally do when you read a text for the first time and fail to
understand it?
(b) What do you think is the appropriate approach to reading a long and complicated

LY
text?
(c) What helps you to obtain detailed information, ideas and opinions from long
and complicated texts?

N
From your discussion, you will notice that you have to read carefully to understand a

O
text fully. This does not mean that you should slowly read every word, but you have
to read efficiently. Reading efficiently means reading for a purpose. If you are not
SE
used to reading for a purpose, you will often read texts several times to understand
them. However, reading a passage several times does not make you a good reader. It is,
therefore, important that you set up a rhythm that makes your reading smooth. If you
U
come across a difficult phrase or expression, you are advised to carry on, but remember
that you may have to come back to it later. This can also be applied to difficult or
unfamiliar words. Using a dictionary repeatedly will not make you an efficient reader
E

either. This is because you may sometimes predict the meaning of a word from the
N

rest of the sentence. Therefore, you are advised to read the entire sentence to get the
meaning of a word. If this does not help, return to it after reading the whole document.
LI

Activity 8.10
N

1. Select one chapter in a novel you are reading and prepare a list of details you
O

would like to obtain from the chapter.

2. Summarise the information you have listed into a readable and coherent text, and
R

present it in class.
FO

Identifying the main conclusions in argumentative texts

The main conclusion is often drawn from a well-established argument and well-defined
premises. To identify the main conclusions in argumentative essays, the reader needs
to connect the argument to its premises. Thus, an argument that is supported by its
premises forms a conclusion. In other words, a conclusion is simply a closing statement
supported by other statements, but it does not support any other statements. To identify
the main conclusion in an argumentative text, form groups of three to four students and
answer the questions in Activity 8.11. Present your work in class for discussion.

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Activity 8.11
1. Select one argumentative essay and read it thoroughly to identify the arguments
and main conclusions in each paragraph.
2. Study the text you have read and identify the expressions that begin the concluding
statement in each paragraph. What other concluding expressions do you know?
Differences between opinions and facts
When you are reading different texts, you may find that some are written using
statements that can be proved true or false, while others are written to express personal

LY
feelings that cannot be proved. Thus, it is logical to conclude that the texts you are
reading are written with purposes. Some authors write to express facts, while others
write to express opinions. Many use facts to support their opinions. However, taking

N
into consideration the difference between facts and opinions is important.

O
Activity 8.12
In groups, do the following:
SE
(a) Describe the main features of fact-based and opinion-based texts.
(b) Write five statements to express facts and another five to express opinions.
(c) State the difference between facts and opinions.
U
Extending general and specialised vocabulary through reading
E

Reading is a useful strategy for building one’s vocabulary, as it exposes readers to

N

different types of vocabulary. As you read different texts, you will discover that one
part of the vocabulary is general, while the other is specialised or technical. You will
LI

discover that general vocabulary refers to words not directly associated with a particular
content area, while specialised vocabulary is associated with a specific content area,
N

subject or topic. Understanding these types of vocabulary depends on the reader’s

O

ability to extend them to more familiar words. As such, extending vocabulary is done
by answering three questions, including What is it? What is it like? and What are the
examples?
R

Activity 8.13
FO

Read a text on classification, preferably from the Form One Biology textbook, and
identify the specialised vocabulary used to classify animals and plants.

Using words with connotative and denotative meanings

It is common to find that some of the words you use have more than one meaning, but
one of the meanings is basic. This means that words can have a basic and an additional
meaning.

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Activity 8.14 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Pair up with your fellow students to do the following:
1. Identify at least five English words which have more than one meaning.
2. State the meanings of each of the five words.
3. Identify the basic and additional meanings of each of the five words.
4. State the differences that you have noted between the basic and additional meanings
of the words you have identified.

Defining words with connotative and denotative meanings

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Words can have denotative and connotative meanings. A denotative or cognitive
meaning of a word is its basic or dictionary meaning. For example, the word snake

N
denotatively means any scary, legless, sometimes venomous reptile with a long,
tapering, cylindrical body found in most tropical or temperate regions. Similarly, the

O
phrase a red rose denotatively means a type of a beautiful flower.
A connotative meaning is an additional meaning. It is not the meaning found in a
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dictionary. For instance, the connotative meaning of the word snake may be evil or
danger. Likewise, the phrase a red rose connotatively means passion and love.
U
Activity 8.15
In groups, do the following:
E

1. With relevant examples, define denotative and connotative meaning.

N

2. Choose any song from popular music and go through its lyrics to identify words
LI

with connotative meanings and state what they mean.

3. Write a dialogue on any topic of your choice. Use words with denotative and
N

connotative meanings.
O

Using information sources to research a topic for presentation

Information sources are important in researching a topic for presentation. They are
R

useful for developing a research topic or providing the researcher with data to address
FO

a particular research problem. However, sources vary, depending on the demands of a

research topic. Therefore, you need to understand different types of information sources
before using them.
Activity 8.16
In pairs, answer the following questions. Write your answers in your exercise books
for review.
1. What types of information sources do you know?
2. Which of the types mentioned have you used?

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3. How did you use them? FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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4. What is the importance of information sources to researchers, students and teachers?
Identifying appropriate questions for research
Although every research begins with what someone thinks about, it is not guaranteed.
In other words, thinking guides you through selecting an idea or a topic to research
on. On the basis of the topic, relevant sources are consulted to collect the information
needed.
Activity 8.17
In groups of three to four, answer the following questions (a)–(f) and present a summary

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of your answers in class.
(a) What is your topic of interest for research?

N
(b) From which field is your research topic?
(c) What type of sources will you consult to research the topic?

O
(d) How will you use the sources you have chosen?
(e) What are the possible research questions?
SE
Collecting information from various sources
U
You are already aware that information is collected from various sources, depending
on the researcher’s needs. There are different sources of information. We can divide the
E

sources into primary and secondary sources.

N

(a) Primary sources of information

LI

A primary source of information provides direct or first-hand information about your

topic. The information you get is normally up-to-date because the materials are original.
N

Examples of primary sources of information include:

O

(i) diaries: note-books in which people’s daily activities are recorded

(ii) speeches: talks, especially formal ones about particular subjects, given to
R

groups of people
FO

(iii) written literature: prose, plays and poems

(iv) personal correspondences: letters that someone sends and receives, informal
(personal) or official
(v) reports: statements describing events, situations and the like, usually as a result
of observation and investigation
(vi) interrogations: questions and answers
(vii) documentaries
(viii) autobiographies and memours

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(b) Secondary sources of information
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A secondary source of information analyses, interprets or discusses information from a
primary source of information. Examples of secondary sources of information are the
following:
(i) Books: books and articles discussing primary sources of information;
publications containing information about a subject that people study, especially
at school or college
(ii) Biographies: written accounts of people’s lives
(iii) Newspapers and magazines: papers that are printed and usually distributed
daily or weekly. They contain news, articles, features and advertisements

LY
(newspaper) or thin books with large pages and paper covers that contain
articles and photographs; they are published every week or month (magazines).

N
(iv) Essays about novels, plays and poems
(v) Political commentary

O
There are other reference materials which may peripherally be consulted. They include:
(a) almanacs
(b) chronologies
SE
(c) directories
U
(d) encyclopaedias
E

Activity 8.18
N

1. In groups of three to four, identify the information collected from the sources in the
following table:
LI

Source Information
N

Textbooks
Interviews with experts
O

(human experience)
The Internet (You Tube)
R

Newspapers
FO

Dictionaries

2. Define and provide the type of information obtained from the tertiary sources of
information mentioned above.

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Organising information for presentation
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A good presentation always reflects good organisation. Information may be presented
in written form or orally. You should always create a kind of organisation that helps
your audience understand your message or argument. The quality of your presentation
is determined by your ability to reach the audience through appropriate communication.

Activity 8.19
In groups of three to four, answer the following questions and present your work in
class for discussion:
1. Identify the procedures for organising information.

LY
2. Use the procedures in (1) to organise information for oral presentation.
Citing sources of information using the APA style

N
In writing your report, you will need to acknowledge your sources of information to

O
avoid academic theft or plagiarism. There are different styles of citing sources such as
the MLA, the Chicago, the APA and others. Many of the books and handouts you read
are likely to have used the APA style in their references.
The APA reference style: general information
SE
1. Arrange references in the alphabetical order.
U
2. For books, the information shown on a reference list includes the author’s last
name, initials of the first and middle names, year of publication (in parenthesis),
E

the book-title (in italics), the city or town and the publisher’s name.
N

3. If your reference list contains two or more works by the same author, the references
LI

will be arranged according to the years of publication, from old to new.

4. In English titles, if a title begins with an article “a/an” or “the”. Do not start with
N

the article.
O

5. Use “&” instead of “and” when you mention the last author on the list.
6. The first line of the reference starts at the beginning of the page, while the other
R

lines are indented.

FO

7. Do not use different lists for different types of references (books, journals,
newspapers and dissertations).
8. Do not use ‘et al.’; mention all the authors. ‘et. al.’ is used only in in-text citation,
if a source has been written by three or more authors.
9. Double space between entries.

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(a) One author FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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How do you write a reference of a single author? Study the following information (1-6)
and think about how you would write or organise a complete reference.
1. AUTHOR: FRANCIS KATAMBA
2. YEAR OF PUBLICATION: 1989
3. BOOK TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PHONOLOGY
4. BOOK EDITION: NOT AVAILABLE
5. PLACE/TOWN WHERE IT WAS PUBLISHED: LONDON
6. PUBLISHER: LONGMAN GROUP UK LIMITED

LY
The information above can be presented in a complete reference as: Katamba, F. (1989).
Introduction to phonology. London: Longman Group UK Limited.

N
(b) Two to twenty authors

O
Study the following information of multiple authors and use it to write (organise) a
complete reference.
SE
1. AUTHORS: VICTORIA FROMKIN, ROBERT RODMAN and NINA HYAMS
2. YEAR: 2011
3. BOOK TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE
U
4. BOOK EDITION: 9th EDITION
5. PLACE/TOWN WHERE IT WAS PUBLISHED: OXFORD
E

6. PUBLISHER: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

N

The information above can be presented in a complete reference as: Fromkin, V.,
Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2011). Introduction to language. Oxford: Oxford University
LI

Press.
N

However, when using a Microsoft Word Programme on the computer, you do not need
to compile your reference list manually. You can fill in the information regarding all
O

your references and then after you have finished writing, you just click add references
to a selected page to add the reference list. The following are the procedures to follow
R

when the document is written in Microsoft Word Office:

FO

(a) Click ‘References’

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FORselect
(b) Click ‘Insert citation’ and ONLINE USENew
‘Add ONLY
Source…’ to open the reference
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dialogue box.

(c) The reference dialog box below requires information to be filled in from the
source (Book, Journal Article, Book section or Report). Click OK to upload

LY
your reference list on the computer.

N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI

Activity 8.20
N

In groups, study the reference lists in books or handouts and answer the questions
O

below. Present your answers in class for discussion.

(a) What information is included when one is writing references using the APA
R

style?
FO

(b) How is the title of a book written in the APA style?

(c) How are punctuation marks used in writing references using the APA style?
(d) Prepare a list of references from five sources of information.

Citing sources using quoted and paraphrased texts

In order to acknowledge sources within a text, you may use direct quotes or paraphrase
texts. It is also acceptable to quote and paraphrase texts. You include authors’ names
and years of publication.

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Activity 8.21 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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In groups, study any text (of your choice) with sources cited using either direct quotes
or paraphrased texts and answer the following questions:
(a) How is the author’s name written? Is it the first or surname?
(b) What shows the date of publication?
(c) How is this information separated from the rest of the text?
(d) Write a short report and cite at least four sources in the text.
(e) Why do people cite?
(f) Write short notes on the following terms:

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• plagiarism
• bibliography

N
• citation
• references

O
• paraphrasing

Reflection
SE
1. What kind of improvement has this chapter made to your reading experience?
U
2. What did you find the most interesting in this chapter?
E

3. What else do you want to do to improve your reading speed?

N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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 Writing as an art

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Nine Writing as an art

Introduction
Writing is not limited to writing personal notes, but it extends to response to questions

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asked in different subjects and presenting one’s ideas on paper. Writing is one of
the language skills that students need. Other equally important language skills are
speaking, listening and reading. In this chapter, you will learn, explore and practise

N
writing. The chapter is intended to equip you with the skills you need to produce
captivating pieces of writing for different purposes. It equips you with advanced

O
writing skills that will enable you to write good essays, autobiographies, letters and
memos, and to take notes for different purposes. This chapter contains activities and
SE
questions which you will have to answer as you read it. The competencies developed
from reading this chapter will make you a good writer and composer. They will also
enable you to write your works using the cases cited and the approaches suggested.
U
Writing essays of different types
E

It is argued that writing is an art. It involves crafting language in particular ways to

N

convey messages. The use of different language styles and devices during writing shows
LI

that writing is not just the act of putting words into phrases, sentences and paragraphs.
It includes the writers’ intentions, language structures and relevant language tools. So,
N

writing is an art to learn, enjoy and communicate messages effectively.

O

Activity 9.1
Read the following stanza from Diop’s poem,‘Africa’ (1996: 37) and identify the aspects
R

of art or beauty used to convey the message to the reader.

FO

Africa my Africa
Africa of proud warriors in ancestral savannahs
Africa of whom my grandmother sings
On the banks of the distant river
I have never known you
But your blood flows in my veins

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FOR on
An essay is a short piece of writing ONLINE USE ONLY
a particular subject which focuses on one topic
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or theme. In schools, students spend most of their time reading and writing essays for
different purposes. Essays are organised into paragraphs. The content and length of an
essay depend on the level of education, subject and course requirements or instructions.
This means that there is neither a fixed length of essays nor a fixed number of paragraphs
in an essay.

Activity 9.2
Collect essay questions from two subjects of your choice. Discuss with your fellow
student(s) the required length of each of your collection. Provide reasons for your

LY
decisions.

Most of the essays written by students at the advanced level of secondary education are

N
argumentative in nature. They are intended to persuade the reader regarding a particular

O
position or perspective on a topic or sub-topic. This is because teachers design questions
that require students to provide convincing points. In such cases, the nature of the essay
is not determined by the writers, but by the instructions given. Other common types of
SE
essays are expository, descriptive, and narrative essays.
U
Activity 9.3
Study the following essay questions and discuss with your fellow student(s) the type of
E

essay required for each question.

(a) Your neighbouring school has invited you to participate in a debate with the motion
N

“Fighting corruption is everyone’s responsibility in Tanzania.

LI

(b) “Code-switching is a vital communication tool amongst bilinguals.”

(c) “An educated individual is expected to be civilised and use his/her education for
N

the benefit and well-being of the entire society. However, sometimes such a person
might not be necessarily civilised.”
O

As noted above, there are four common types of essay. They are descriptive, narrative,
R

expository and argumentative essays. They form a more logical starting point in learning
how to write compelling essays. The decision to adopt one type of writing rather than
FO

another depends on various factors, including the audience, purpose, subject-matter

and the level of education. This part explores each type of essay to enable you identify
the types of essay and do writing assignments.

Activity 9.4

Take a good dictionary and look up the meanings of the words expository, argumentative,
descriptive and narrative. Discuss with your fellow student(s) the aspects of writing
that would add value to any essay type of your choice.

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Narrative essay FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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This is a text written to tell a story. Remember that every time you tell a friend or
relative something that happened to you, you are engaging in a form of narration in
such contexts. This story, when written, is called a narrative essay. The purpose of a
narrative essay is to describe and transmit both fictional and factual tales.
The difference between factual and fictional narratives is determined by the amount
of “proofs” the storyteller offers to the listeners or readers. For fictional stories, those
made-up or imagined, the narrators or writers create the characters and events that
seem relevant to the story. On the other hand, factual stories involve characters who are
real people in a given setting, and the events depicted really happened. The narratives

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include elements such as characters, conflicts and settings.
A narrative essay differs from other types in that the essay has characters, incidents and

N
dialogues. Narrative writing includes poetry, anecdotes, prose and novels.

O
A narrative essay consists of an introduction, a thesis statement, the main body and a
conclusion. The introduction and thesis statement form an overview of what the whole
text is about. The main body introduces and develops the characters, locations and
dialogues.
SE
The introduction is a very important part of the essay because it sets the atmosphere for
U
the essay. Depending on how the introduction is written, the reader may be attracted or
discouraged to read the entire essay. Thus, the introduction should catch the attention
of the reader. The crucial ingredient in the introduction is the thesis statement. This
E

statement provides a full picture of the whole essay. It provides the main theme
N

around which the whole story revolves. The writer should select a topic to write about
before starting to write the details. The main body contains the details, including the
LI

events, characters, setting, thoughts and more facts. The main body is characterised by
N

dialogues since they give life to the stories and support the “atmosphere” of the stories.
The conclusion is the final part of the essay, which presents the outcome of the story.
O

This part is as important as the introduction. It is advised that the conclusion provides
the moral or lesson of the entire story.
R

Activity 9.5
FO

Read the following text and do the exercise that follows.

It was not possible for me to understand certain facts about having no money until one
fine morning. I could hardly imagine that a five-hundred-shilling bus fare could cause
a scene. This incident made me remember the Kiswahili saying ‘Hujafa hujaumbika.’
On that fateful morning, I boarded a daladala from a bus stop located near where I was
living. I was not used to using public transport, but this morning I had to use it since I
had taken my car to a mechanic the day before.

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The daladala conductor went around, USE
rattling ONLY of coins in his hands. Every
a mixture
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time the coins were rattled, someone had to pay the bus fare. And when that happened, a
passenger would toss into this man’s filthy hand a five-hundred-shilling coin or several
coins.
Finally, the coins were rattled towards me. I searched myself and was startled. The
coins were shaken towards me to make a loud noise. The first time, second, third,
fourth... I remained speechless.
‘I’m sorry, I can’t find my money,’ I managed to say politely.
‘Boss, give me my money,’ the conductor raised his voice for all to hear.
‘I don’t have any money,’ I repeated.

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‘Stop that. I know your type very well,’ the man shouted again, even louder. He started
to attack me with filthy words. As a CEO of a company, I could not shout back.
‘Man, take this,’ a Good Samaritan paid for me. The lady’s voice had an effect on my

N
ears. It was Jenise, my old-time friend.

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Exercise
1. Identify the features that make the above text a narrative essay.
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2. Use the end of the text to write your own narration (add at least five more
paragraphs).
U
Activity 9.6
E

Write two narrative essays, one about your first day at school and another about
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something your parents did and you were very happy about.
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Organisation of incidents in a narrative essay

Narrative essays have a defined organisation of incidents (plot). The plot is a series of
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events which are arranged chronologically through the principle of cause-and-effect. In

other words, a plot is a series of events in which one event causes the next event from
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the beginning to the end of the narrative. The causal events can be thought of as a series
of events linked using a connector.
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Activity 9.7
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Study the texts below and decide which one is a true representation of a plot. Provide
reasons for your decision.
Text I
Jonas and Zainab were friends. Zainab was a Form Six student and Jonas was a Form
Five student. They met at the registry, where the results of the annual examinations
were posted. Both had very good results. Jonas and Zainab were from the same
village. During the holidays, Jonas sent Zainab’s father presents. The father was
very happy to know that Jonas and Zainab were friends.

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Jonas and Zainab became friends the day they met at the registry. Zainab was in
Form Six, while Jonas was in Form Five. They had gone there to see the results of
the annual examinations. Both had very good results. Jonas befriended Zainab after
he realised that they were from the same village. During the holidays, Zainab gave
Jonas presents for her father. The father was happy to know that Jonas and Zainab
were friends.
Key features of the plot of a narrative essay
Aristotle says the plot of a narrative essay should have three parts: the beginning, the
middle and the end. This means that regardless of the narrative technique, the writer

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adopts flashback, flash-forward or foreshadow. The causal events in a narrative essay
should be chronologically slotted into the beginning, middle and end. A German
playwright and a novelist, Gustav Freytag, revised the events. According to Freytag,

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the plot of a narrative essay is divided into five parts: exposition, rising action, climax,

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falling action and catastrophe (denouement/resolution).

Activity 9.8
SE
Use the Internet or an advanced learner’s dictionary to define the terms exposition, rising
action, climax, falling action and catastrophe as used in the study of narrative writing.
U
Then explain how each of the terms are related to Aristotle’s plot of the narrative essay.
Qualities of a good narrative essay
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As explained in the previous sections, a narrative essay is one which tells a story, often
about something that happened to the author. The purpose is to tell a story in such a
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way that the audience learns certain lessons from it. When someone writes a narrative
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essay, he/she talks about an event or a moment that is meaningful to him/her. The more
the writer cares about a particular event, the easier it will be for him/her to tell the
N

story in an interesting manner. Normally, the writer of a narrative essay avoids lengthy
descriptions at the start and makes sure that he/she gets right down to the action of the
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story. He/she does not simply tell the reader about the time that he/she fell and broke
his or her leg, but he/she tells the reader what he/she learned from falling and breaking
R

his/her leg.
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The following is a summary of the qualities of a good narrative essay:

(a) It is a vivid story told from someone’s point of view.
(b) It has a defined plot.
(c) It is captivating – a narrative story should arouse the reader’s interest.
(d) It has naturally flowing language, alloyed with certain devices to heighten the
dramatic effect.

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Expository essays are academic pieces of writing. Students write such essays to get
grades. Expository writing is based on facts and uses real evidence to explain or
investigate a specific topic. Unlike argumentative essays, expository essays have a
neutral point of view and provide an analysis of facts. An expository essay is usually
a short assignment intended to test someone’s composition skills or understanding.
In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a topic using facts, statistics and
examples. This type of essay is about facts, and not personal feelings. Therefore, writers
do not reveal their emotions or write in the first person point of view.

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Activity 9.9
Study at least three essays from recognised journals or books. Write at least five features
that make them expository.

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Expository essays may fall under the following subcategories: cause and effect essays,

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compare-and-contrast essays, problem-and-solution essays, and process essays.
Cause-and-effect essays explain why something occurred and what happened as a
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result. Compare-and-contrast essays are essays which compare and contrast things,
ideas, concepts and so forth. These essays take two subjects or ideas and analyse their
similarities and differences to make conclusions. Problem-solving essays deal with
U
specific problems and their potential solutions. Process essays break down a step-by-
step procedure to instruct the reader how to do something.
E

Steps in writing expository essays

N

The following are steps to observe in writing expository essays:

(a) Select a topic to write about: One should choose a topic on which one can get
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the information necessary for answering the questions raised. There is a broad
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range of topics in different subjects which students can write about. In schools,
teachers can help students choose topics.
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(b) Write an introductory paragraph: This paragraph has a topic sentence, which
states the thesis or main point of the essay. A good thesis should be simple
R

enough so that writers can capably support it with subsequent paragraphs.

(c) Write the main body of the essay: The main body of the essay should focus on
FO

the details of the topic. The main body is divided into supporting paragraphs.
Each paragraph builds upon another in succession, from the introduction to the
conclusion. In the final analysis, the different paragraphs must form a unified
whole.
(d) Write a concluding paragraph: This paragraph contains information already
presented in the essay, that is, the writer’s thesis and a summary of the supporting
points presented in each paragraph.
(e) Revise and proofread: In this step, writers are advised to re-read their essays
and ensure that the thesis is clear and is supported with unbiased evidence.

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In order to put the paragraphs USEwriters
together, ONLY should make use of paragraph
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transitions. Proofreading involves correcting grammatical errors and poor word
choice.

Activity 9.10
Study the following expository essay and do the exercise that follows.

Instagram
Instagram has quickly gained popularity in recent years as one of the main social
networks of the world. It attracts many different types of users, especially teenagers,

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young adults and adults. Facebook is the oldest of Instagram and Twitter. But users of
Facebook at the moment migrate away from Facebook to Instagram, Twitter and other
more picture-based platforms to enjoy their networks. In order to fully understand the

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importance of Instagram, it would be useful to know its history and how it developed.

O
Instagram started in the US in 2010 when Kevin Systrom, a programme engineer and
Mike Krieger, a software engineer, shifted their program Burbn to focus on mobile
photography. It is reported that Krieger thought their program had become akin to
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Foursquare and therefore wanted to shy away from this similarity. Therefore, they
came up with an idea to name that application, an Instagram, which is a blend of the
words “instant camera” and “telegram”.
U
In March of 2010, Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger acquired a fund of about $500,000
E

from Baseline Ventures and Andreessen Horowitz. The fund helped them to hire Josh
Riedel as their Community Manager, Shane Sweeney as their engineer, and Jessica
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Zollman as a Community Evangelist. They uploaded their first Instagram photograph

on 16th July 2010. Systrom uploaded that photo.
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Instagram’s official release on the App Store as an iOS application was on 6th October
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2010. The release proved to be successful, as, by February 2011, the company had
gathered 7 million dollars in funding from several investors (“Instagram Launches with
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the Hope of Igniting Communication through Images”). The investors valued Instagram
at the time to be worth about 20 million dollars.
R

Instagram was then released on Android phones on 3rd April 2012. It is reported that in
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less than a day, the application was downloaded over million times through Android
phones. From then on, the company started raising money from different cooperate
companies. For example, in May 2012, it raised a total of $50 million from venture
capitalists, valued at $500 million. Seeing the application as a threat and viable
competitor, Facebook bought Instagram for $1 billion in cash and stock.
Generally, although Instagram began as a four-square copy, it soon budded into a photo-
sharing powerhouse. The focus of Instagram was on the sharing of photographs rather
than chat and other features. To date, Instagram has become a more favourite social

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network by the public and investors ONLINEanyUSE
otherONLY
network. The value of the company
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has continued to increase exponentially. Now the company, under Facebook’s wing has
acquired enormous funding and backing. The future of Instagram looks bright, as many
Facebook followers have now shifted there in light of Facebook’s controversial trials
and ageing interface.

Exercise
1. What is the essay about?
2. To what extent has the writer succeeded in presenting the topic and the
supporting evidence?

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3. How does this essay differ from the other types of essay you know?
4. Which other topics do you think could be addressed in this type of essay?

N
O
Activity 9.11
In collaboration with your fellow students, find from other sources some samples of
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essays and determine whether they are expository or not. After learning the features of
expository essays, select at least two topics and write expository essays on each.
U
Descriptive essays
A descriptive essay is an essay that describes something. The description may be of an
E

event, a place, an experience, an object or even a person. Descriptive essays describe

N

things from the writer’s experience using words and phrases that make the description
almost real. Descriptive essays are different from other essays, although the techniques
LI

used in writing descriptive essays are the same.

N

Descriptive essays consist of a variety of techniques and choices writers may make to
present to readers accurate and three-dimensional impressions of the subjects. Some
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of the techniques used to make writing more descriptive include metaphors, similes,
imagery, hyperboles, personification and onomatopoeia. Descriptive writing is a perfect
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tool for accurately communicating something that is not tangible; this is why this type
of writing is useful in fiction, poetry and drama.
FO

Activity 9.12
1. Choose one of the following tasks and write the first sentence of your paragraph
that would set you up for the rest of your description.
(a) Write the opening sentences for a description of a marketplace at lunchtime.
(b) Describe the scene at a concert when the musician went on stage.
(c) Describe the scene at a bus terminus when you made a long journey for the
first time.

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2. Study the following descriptive ONLINE
andUSE ONLY
discuss with your fellow student(s) how it
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conforms to the qualities of a descriptive essay.

In memory of my mother
I have so many memories of my mother. I am sure other people feel the same about
their mothers. But my mother occupies a special place in my life. We laid her to rest
many years ago, but her memory still lives on in my mind. Let me tell you a little bit
about my mother.
My mother was an elegant brown looking woman of average height. She was the typical
African beauty. She was a caring mother who made sure that all of her children took

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breakfast before letting them go to school. She prepared lunch for us, which we always
found ready at lunch break. Not a single day passed without her preparing lunch for us.
Although she served the dinner late, it was well cooked and delicious.

N
My mother loved our father. She paid special attention to him. In our culture, a woman’s

O
pride and respect are judged by the personality of her husband. The man’s mental and
physical health reflect the care taken by the woman to whom he is married. My father
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confessed openly that, in the hands of my mother, life was worth living. It was this
appreciation and return of love from my father that kept my mother alive and motivated.
My mother was strict. There were many of us in the family, boys and girls. Domestic
U
chores were shared equally among us. There was no excuse for not completing one’s
share of the chores. She supervised us washing our school uniform and home clothes.
E

Nobody was allowed to wear clothes that were not ironed. She inspected the ironed
clothes, and those which were not properly ironed would be redone. She was very
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impatient with lazy children.

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My mother was a responsible and hospitable woman. My father’s homestead was a

place of many visitors. Visitors were not only relatives but also neighbours and people
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from distant places. Some came for advice, while others came to seek help to solve
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their problems.
My father was a clan leader and played his role humbly and judiciously. Many times he
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travelled to his distant shamba and stayed away from home for days. It was my mother
who stayed at home and received the visitors on his behalf. Some came from very
FO

distant places and would sleepover. She had to prepare accommodation and meals for
them. Many times she was overworked, but she did not complain. My mother was very
supportive of my father’s roles, and most of the people were satisfied with her services
and care.
My mother was an efficient and hardworking person. She worked extremely hard and
achieved a lot in life. She had an excellent banana garden from which she harvested
huge bunches of bananas. No man or woman was able to carry them on their shoulders
or heads unassisted. We always used a wheelbarrow to carry the harvest from the garden

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to the village road and eventually theONLINE
market. USE ONLYa lot of money from her garden.
She made
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Whenever she went to the market, she bought us presents. That was my mother.
My mother loved us. She provided us with the guidance on family and personal issues.
She was warm, patient, inspiring and very close to us. There is much more that I would
say about my mother if I had time. I love my mother and miss her a lot.
Adopted from: Tanzania Institute of Education (2021). English for Secondary Schools Student’s Book
Form Three. Dar es Salaam: TIE.

3. Use the descriptive essay model, In memory of my mother, to write a description

of one of the following topics:
(a) The high school of my dream

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(b) The scariest night ever
(c) The day I joined Form One

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(d) My favourite subject

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Argumentative (persuasive) essay
An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that takes a stance on an issue or topic of
SE
interest. In a good argumentative essay, the writer attempts to persuade the reader to
understand and support his/her point of view about the topic. The writer does this by
stating his/her reasoning and giving strong evidence. Because argumentative writing
U
involves persuading or convincing the reader, it is also called persuasive writing. This
is the type of writing high school and college students do.
E

Activity 9.13
N

Read the following passage and do the exercise that follows.

LI

Studying English in an English-speaking country is the best but not the only way to
learn English. Do you agree or disagree with this statement?
N

Studying a language in a country where it is widely spoken has many advantages. It

O

is, therefore, a good idea to study English in a country such as Britain. However, I
believe it is not the only way to learn the language. In the first place, most students
in non-English-speaking countries learn English at secondary school and sometimes
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at university nowadays. Although their spoken English is not usually of a very high
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standard, their knowledge of grammar is often quite advanced. This is certainly useful
when students go to the English-speaking country to cleanse their English.

Secondly, studying the basics of English at secondary school is less stressful than
learning the language while overseas. This is because students living at home do not
have to worry about problems such as finding accommodation, paying for their studies
and living costs, and trying to survive in a foreign country, where day-to-day living
causes much stress.

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However, there are obvious advantages USE ONLY
of learning English in Britain. Everyday there
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are opportunities to listen to and speak with the British people. Students can also
experience British culture first-hand, which is of great importance when one is trying
to understand the language. This is especially true if they choose to live with a British
family. Furthermore, if students attend a language school full-time, the teachers will be
native speakers. In that case, not only will the students’ speaking and listening skills
improve, but they may also develop their reading and writing skills.
In general, even though it is preferable to study English in an English-speaking country,
a reasonable level of English can be achieved in one’s own country if one is gifted and
dedicated to learning.

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Exercise
1. How well does the essay support the thesis?

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2. How do you describe the flow of ideas in the essay?

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3. What are the rhetorical devices used to convince the reader?
4. How do the rhetorical devices support the arguments?

Writing essays step-by-step

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Regardless of their types, all essays have a unified tripartite structure comprising the
U
introduction, main body and conclusion. The division of essays into the introduction,
main body and conclusion is the initial step in studying the structure of pieces of writing.
E

As noted earlier, paragraphs are the building blocks of essays, since they consist of
N

words, phrases and sentences intended to convey the target message. Each paragraph
consists of a number of sentences. Normally, first sentence in each paragraph is a
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topic sentence. It provides the general idea about the paragraph concerned. The other
N

sentences in a paragraph support the first sentence by providing more details to complete
the sense of the paragraph.
O

The paragraphs determine the messages or thoughts an essay communicates. Each

paragraph, as a rule, presents one thought. One thought is related to the introduction
R

and another to the conclusion. Each of the paragraphs in the main body conveys one
FO

thought; thus, a six-paragraph essay is expected to have four thoughts in the main body.
The flow of thoughts from one paragraph to the other is maintained using connectors.
These are the special words – also called discourse markers – used to ensure a smooth
transition of thoughts, from one paragraph to another. Examples of connectors are next,
following, in addition, similarly, on the contrary, unlike, however, nevertheless and
moreover. The conclusion is introduced by expressions such as in a nutshell, generally,
finally, in conclusion, having said that, all in all, and to sum up.

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(a) FOR
Writing an introductory ONLINE USE ONLY
paragraph
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When you begin writing the first paragraph of your essay, two things are important to
consider; a topic sentence and a thesis statement. A thesis statement is a declarative
statement that tells your reader what you think about a topic. It is the position you take
about the topic. Remember the time when you participated in or listened to a debate
competition. The speakers introduced themselves and provided their thesis statements.
Example: “I am here to oppose the motion that says …” This is an example of a thesis
statement. In other words, it is your overriding opinion or a response to the topic.
Example 1
The negatives of Internet use are outweighed by its many benefits to students. The

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Internet provides access to information, exposure to different perspectives and
a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers. (This is a thesis

N
statement in an argumentative essay.)

O
Example 2
The construction of Magufuli Bus Terminus at Mbezi has improved the transport
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system in Dar es Salaam, since the system of checking in and checking out has
been simplified and passenger congestion reduced. (This is a thesis statement in an
expository essay.)
U
In writing the introductory paragraph, you need to consider why this is your answer
E

and how you will make the reader agree with you. As you read more about your topic
and begin to write, your answer should get more detailed. The final thesis statement
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does not just state your position, but summarises your overall argument.
LI

(b) Supporting points with details/evidence in the main body

Details or evidence consists of facts, opinions, anecdotes, illustrations and examples
N

that support your topic sentence or thesis statement. Each piece of ‘evidence’ must
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support your thesis statement. It must also be related in some way to your topic. The
following is how to develop your paragraph by writing the details or evidence to support
your argument or point:
R

(i) Facts
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Facts are most frequently used as evidence in academic essays. They may include
names, dates, events and other specific pieces of information. For example, if the
question is how new discoveries in physics have changed our perception of the natural
world, the introductory paragraph may be as follows:

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Thesis statement
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This essay explains that new discoveries in physics have made us view the
material world as a shifting array of objects that we cannot hold in our gaze.
The author will draw evidence from Tanzania to show how this happens.
Kibwana Mafumbo’s discovery of the electron in 1897 showed that the atom
was not indivisible, as its Greek name suggests, but could be broken down
into its constituent parts.

Fact

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(ii) Authoritative opinions
Authoritative opinions may also be used as evidence to support your argument. These

N
may include the opinions of authorities in the field or your opinions as long as they are
solidly grounded in fact.

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Thesis statement

SE
New discoveries in physics have made us view the material world as a
shifting array of objects that we cannot hold in our gaze. Modern artists, in
particular fururist and cubist painters, have used new discoveries in physics
U
to portray material world as matter in motion.

Opinion
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(iii) Anecdotes
N

An anecdote is a short story that a writer tells to make his/her point clear. An anecdote
can make an essay more interesting.
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Thesis statement
N
O

New discoveries in physics have made us view the material world as a

shifting array of objects that we cannot hold in our gaze. In the 1920s,
university professors struggling to understand the new physics developed
R

the Principle of Uncertainty. In their study, they learned that an electron

FO

on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays would behave like a particle, but on

Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays it would behave like a wave.

Anecdote
(iv) Quotable comments
Quotes are also helpful in supporting a point raised in an essay. However, do not rely
heavily on quotes to make your point, since they can be misleading. A quote represents
only one point of view, and so it may or may not be representative of a large body of
opinions. Be sure that your quote comes from an authoritative source.

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Thesis statement

New discoveries in physics have made us view the material world as a shifting
array of objects that we cannot hold in our gaze. Bronowski, J., the popular
historian of science, wrote that “we devise more precise instruments with which
to observe nature with more fineness. And when we look at the observations,
we are discomfited to see that they are still fuzzy, and we feel that they are
as uncertain as ever. We seem to be running after a goal which lurches away
from us to infinity every time we come within sight of it.” (The Ascent of Man,

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1973).
Quotable comment

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(c) Writing a concluding paragraph
The conclusion presents a summary of all that has been written in the essay.

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There is a tendency to write new ideas in a conclusion. The presentation of new
ideas in a conclusion is an incongruity that must be avoided. You should not
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present any new ideas when writing a concluding paragraph of your essay.

Exercise
U
1. Write a thesis statement for each of the following topics and topic questions:
(a) Prevention is better than cure.
E

Thesis statement: __________________________________________

N

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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(b) How do science and technology influence people’s lives?

N

Thesis statement: __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
O

____________________________________________________________
R

(c) Mount Kilimanjaro

FO

Thesis statement: __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

(d) The story of my life

Thesis statement: __________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

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2. Develop evidence from each of the thesis statements you have written above
using any of the pieces of evidence provided in the previous section.
(a) Prevention is better than cure.
Thesis statement: __________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Evidence: ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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How do science and technology affect people’s lives?
Thesis statement: __________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

N
Evidence: ________________________________________________

O
____________________________________________________________

(b) Mount Kilimanjaro

Thesis statement:
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__________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
U
Evidence: ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
E

(c) The story of my life

N

Thesis statement: __________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________
Evidence: ________________________________________________
N

____________________________________________________________
O
R

Reflection
FO

1. What did you like best in this chapter?

2. Can you now define narrative, argumentative and descriptive essays?
3. Can you now write narrative, argumentative, descriptive and expository essays?

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Ten Note-taking and summary

writing
Introduction
To be successful in note-taking and summary-writing, among other things, one needs

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to be good at the language used. As a student, you have to read many books and
attend lessons to increase your understanding of what you read. In this chapter, you
will learn how to take notes and summarise what you read or hear appropriately. The

N
competencies developed from reading this chapter will enable you to take notes and
summarise ideas well and successfully.

O
Taking notes from different sources
SE
Reporters take notes during conferences. Students also take notes during lessons,
seminars, discussions or debates as well as from books, papers and journals. One of
U
the most effective ways to remember and understand what you have learnt in class is to
take structured notes. Good notes help you to remember concepts, develop meaningful
E

learning skills and better understand a topic. Effective notes will lead to less stress
when examination time comes. Note-taking requires you to think about what you are
N

writing and helps you to make connections between topics.

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Note-taking is the act of writing down pieces of information systematically. Thus, it

can be defined as the activity of jotting down what is heard or read. It should be noted
N

that people cannot write everything they hear, but they can write every point they hear.
O

The key point in note-taking is ‘brevity’ – writing down the main points only. It should
be noted that note-taking is not reproducing another version of what was initially said
or read, but rather, documenting the same in brief. Note-taking does not include asides,
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all examples given, ambiguous details, jokes and statements meant for humour.
FO

Activity 10.1
1. In pairs, discuss at least three definitions of note-taking and mention scenarios in
which note-taking skills are needed.
2. Which possible challenges are you likely to face while taking notes? Explain how
you would avoid them.

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Note-taking techniques FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Using different note-taking techniques is important, especially when you intend to
improve and succeed in your studies. There are several note-taking techniques you can
use to start taking better notes in class. However, before you start taking notes, you
must consider the following things:

First, pay attention to whatever is going on during the lesson. Avoid things that would
distract your attention. Second, pay attention to the first sentence or words uttered
by the speaker. The first sentence or words act as a topic sentence or catchphrases
relating to what the speaker wants to talk about. The speaker may begin by saying ‘...

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the language of instruction (LoI) is one of the controversial topics in Tanzania today.’
In this example, the speaker wants to talk about the language of instruction. Third,
write the key points presented in point-form. As you write, watch out for cues from the

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speaker. The speaker may indicate or emphasise important points by changing his/her

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voice (applying stress), writing on the board or employing gestures. The speaker may
even use discourse cues (discourse markers). Cues help the note-taker to identify the
dynamics of a presentation. For example, the speaker may list points using numbers
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(the number one factor is..., the number two factor is..., the number three factor is...).
The speaker may show a contrasting view using words like ‘but’, ‘however’, and
‘nevertheless...’, or may add a point by saying, ‘in addition....’, ‘the next point is...’ and
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‘...another important issue to consider is ...’, or may end the presentation by saying,
‘finally...’, ‘lastly...’, ‘in a nut shell...’ ‘in conclusion ...’ and ‘having said that ...’
E

The following are some of the methods to be used in writing or taking notes:
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(a) The outlining method

The most common way to write notes is to outline. This method involves writing
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the title of the presentation at the top of the page. The statement of the main point
is written in the first line. All the main points in the presentation should be aligned
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with the first point. Supporting points are written underneath the main points and right
indented. Should there be sub-points or illustrations of the sub-points, they are written
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underneath, right indented in that order. The following is an example of the outline of
the notes:
FO

Title
Main point 1
Sub-point 1.1
Sub-point 1.2
Main point 2
Sub-point 2.1
Sub-point 2.2

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Sub-point 3.1
Sub-sub point 3.1.1
Sub-sub point 3.1.2
Sub-point 3.2
Sub-point 3.3
Main point 4
Sub-point 4.1
Sub-point 4.2

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As shown in the above format, begin your notes with a single bullet point and write
the main topic during the lesson. Write the first sub-topic below and indent it slightly.
List any details below the heading and indent them slightly. This method allows your

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notes to be well organised. It is also easy to see the relationship between topics and

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sub-topics. It is very easy to formulate questions from your notes if you did not get the
point during the speech.

Activity 10.2 SE
Take notes from a speech read to you by your fellow student using the above method,
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and identify the challenges you faced while taking notes.

(b) The mapping method

E

The mapping note-taking method is normally a visual way of organising notes. The
N

notes are organised according to the topic at hand. For example, the main topics branch
out into sub-topics with detailed information about each. You begin by writing the main
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topic, divide the main topic into sub-topics and write the important notes underneath
each sub-topic. See the diagram below.
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Main topic
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Sub topic 1 Sub topic 2

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Details Details

Point 1 Point 1

Point 1 Point 1

Point 1 Point 1

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FORfor
This method is particularly useful ONLINE USE
visually ONLY learners. It also helps one to
impaired
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remember and connect the relationship between topics. Furthermore, it may be used to
plan and write different essays.

(c) The sentence method

The sentence note-taking method involves writing down each topic as a sentence. This
method works well for fast-paced lessons, where a lot of information is being covered.
Each line on the page is a new and separate topic. To organise your notes even more,
you can use headings for each main topic. To do it, write down the information the
speaker emphasises. This may be put in sentential form or point form. Start a new
sentence or point for each new detail. Use headings to organise the topics.

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N
O
SE
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E
N

This method helps one to determine which information is important and which is not.
One can cover many details and information quickly. Notes are simplified for study and
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review. The method also allows the reader to tell or detect where a new thought begins
and ends.
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O

(d) The Cornell method

The Cornell note-taking method helps to organise class notes into easily digestible
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summaries. It takes into account the fact that, it is often not possible to take organised
notes when listening to a speaker. So, it is necessary to review and organise one’s notes
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afterwards (preferably shortly afterwards in case one forgets). This method is effective
because the main points, details, study cues and summary are all written in one place.
The paper is divided into three sections; the margin to the left, a summary section at the
bottom and the main notes section. See the sample.

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N
O
SE
U
E
N
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To take notes using this method, use the main notes column. All the notes from the
lesson go into the main note-taking column. The smaller column on the left is for
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comments, questions or hints about the actual notes. After the lesson, you should take
a moment to summarise the main ideas on the page in the section at the bottom, which
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will speed up your reviewing and studying process. The best part is that many of you
already remember and digest the information while writing a summary like this. The
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advantage of using this method is that the notes are neatly organised, summarised and
easy to review. It also allows you to extract major ideas and concepts. In the summary
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segment at the bottom, write a summary of your notes. This is where you will highlight
the main points.

(e) The charting method

The charting note-taking method uses columns to organise information. The page is
divided into columns labelled by category. The details of each category are filled in
rows. When information is mentioned, jot it down underneath the proper column. When
the next topic begins, move down one row and begin again. See the format provided.

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N
O
This method is useful for lessons that cover many facts or relationships between topics.
Facts are organised and easy to review. The method also highlights key points in each
topic.
Activity 10.3
SE
U
1. Take notes from a speech read to you by your fellow student using different methods
and discuss the challenges you faced while taking the notes.
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2. Take the notes you have written from another class and organise them effectively.
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Share them with another student.

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Summary writing
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A summary is a general term used to describe writing that briefly explains a larger
piece of work, which may be a speech, novel, academic paper or report. Summaries
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are much shorter than their original pieces of work, but include all the essential points.
The length of the summary depends on the length of the work being summarised and
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the purpose of the summary.

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Essays provide beginners with a good starting point to practise writing summaries. One
way of writing compelling summaries as you begin learning to summarise is writing a
sentence that summarises a paragraph or paragraphs. After you have written the sentence
that summarises a paragraph or paragraphs, you can practise writing summaries of
larger pieces of work or assignments.

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Activity 10.4 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Read a newspaper article comprising at least 10 paragraphs and write a three-sentence
summary of the article. Then share with your fellow student(s) the challenges you
encountered in writing the summary.
Writing official and personal letters

Letters are written messages someone sends to another person. Letters may also be
defined as forms of written conversations sent in an envelope by post or messenger. The
word post or messenger is important in that it differentiates letters from email messages
and text-messages, which are also forms of conversation.

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There are two main types of letters: formal letters and informal (or personal letters).
Formal letters are official letters and are used for official purposes. Formal letters are

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further divided into business letters, official letters, social letters, report letters, notice

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letters, circular letters, order letters, complaint and application letters. On the contrary,
personal letters are non-official letters and are used for informal purposes. Personal
letters are also called friendly or informal letters.

(a) Personal letters

SE
U
A personal letter is a letter written to friends, relatives and siblings. If, for example,
you are writing a letter to your sister, who is away at college, the letter falls under the
category of personal letters. Students’ letters to parents, reminding them to pay school
E

fees or to buy new uniform, are also personal letters. In writing these letters, writers are
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free to use styles of their choice. They are not forced to observe strict rules of formality
that are characteristic of formal letters.
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Activity 10.5
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Provide a list of reasons personal letters are written. Study Figure 1 below and then list
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the key elements of a personal letter.

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FO

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N
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SE
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E
N
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Figure 1 Format of a friendly letter

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Activity 10.6
Attempt the following activities individually and then in pairs.
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1. Write a letter to your best friend, explaining to him or her the following:
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(a) your progress in school

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(b) an interschool sport tournament

(c) the environment club you founded at school
2. Exchange your letters with the student sitting next to you.
3. Read his/her letter and comment on it (on language and any issue of interest).
4. Write a reply to your friend’s letter.
5. Exchange the letters again. Read his/her reply to your letter and comment
accordingly before you return the letter to him or her.

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(b) Formal/Official lettersFOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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A formal letter is written to an office or institution. The letters are regarded as formal
because they observe strict conventions or rules in both language and layout. The
language, content and purpose of a formal letter should be professional.

(i) Letters to the editor

Study the following application letter from Aisha:

Rungwe Mpya Village,

P.O. Box 172,

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Kasulu.
25 December, 2021.
th

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Director of Human Resources,
Sophia Micro-Finance Co. Ltd.,

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P.O. Box 1170,
Dar es Salaam.

Dear Madam/Sir,
SE
U
RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF HUMAN RESOURCE OFFICER-I

Reference is made to the above heading.

E
N

In the Daily News of 20th December 2021 you advertised the post of a Human
Resources Officer-I at your company. Therefore, I would like to apply for the post
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so that I can play my part in its growth.

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I am a Tanzanian lady aged 26. I hold a Master’s Degree in Public Administration

and Human Resources Management from Sydney University, Australia.
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Enclosed herewith, please find certified copies of my academic and professional

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certificates, as well as my CV.

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I will be very grateful if my application is considered.

Yours faithfully,

AMK-Nsunko
Aisha M K Nsunko
Mobile: +255-700-000011

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Activity 10.7 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. In groups, identify the elements of formal letters and state why formal letters are
written.
2. Write the differences between formal letters and personal letters.

Activity 10.8
Pair up with your fellow student and do the following:
1. Write a letter to the National Bank of Society (NBS) manager asking for an

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opportunity to talk to him/her about financial support for activities of the English
club in your school. Remember to mention the activities that require financial
support.

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2. Exchange the letters with your fellow student.

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3. Read his/her letter and comment on issues like language use and the flow of ideas.
4. Write a reply to the letter as the NBS Manager. Decline the appointment due to
pressing issues at your office. SE
(ii) Letters to the editor
U
These letters are sent to newspaper editors. They are not different from other formal
letters because they adhere to all aspects of formality. They are always short and straight
E

to the point. The subject matter of these letters varies and falls into the following sub-
categories:
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• Letters conveying information: The reader may have some knowledge he/she
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wishes to share as he/she considers it useful or interesting, for example advising

the community or authority on a particular phenomenon.
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• Letters seeking information or help: Information may be sought either from the
newspaper or from any reader who may have it. A wide range of topics may be
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covered.
• Letters making suggestions or stating opinions and beliefs: These may cover
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local, national or international affairs. They may also be on more general topics
such as cruelty to animals and degeneracy of the modern youth.
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• Letters of complaint: The complaint could be about something which appeared

in the newspaper, written either by a member of the newspaper’s staff or by a
reader in the correspondence column. Many such letters bring to light problems
where the writer lives.
• Letters of appreciation: Such letters are written to express the writer’s pleasure
at something they have seen in a paper or his/her feelings that some praiseworthy
aspect of public life or conduct should be made known through the newspaper.

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Here is the conventional formatFOR ONLINE

of letters USEeditor:
to the ONLY
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(a) sender’s address
(a) receiver’s address
(b) salutation
(c) title
(d) main body
(e) closure
(f) signature
Activity 10.9
Using the sub-categories of letters to the editor, write at least two letters to editors.

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Remember to use the conventional format displayed above correctly.
Writing memos

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A memo (or memorandum) is a short piece of writing used to circulate information

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at the workplace. This is one of the most effective ways to circulate information at
short notice. Memos are often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass media
communication). Information in memos is usually treated with the utmost urgency.
SE
Events like extraordinary meetings, quick reviews and emergencies are communicated
using memos, although presently people tend to use emails and social media.
U
Activity 10.10
Brainstorm with your fellow student(s) on possible issues that may warrant using
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memos in your school. Memos are printed on headed paper and include the elements
shown in the example below.
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MAENDELEO SECONDARY SCHOOL

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MEMO
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To: Form VI students

CC: Academic mistress
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From: Form Six class monitor

Date: 20th October, 2021.
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SUBJECT: SUBMISSION OF ASSIGNMENTS AND PROJECT REPORTS

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You are informed that the third term examinations will begin on 2nd November,
2021. Thus, you are reminded to submit all your assignments and project reports to
the academic office by 25th October, 2021. Otherwise, disciplinary measures will
be taken.
Thanks
Kalekwa Kakwiye
Class Monitor

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Activity 10.11 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. In pairs, discuss the importance of memos as a communication tool.
2. Imagine you were the news editor at a large news agency. Your department paper
shredder is not working. Write a memo to the purchasing manager, explaining the
problem and requesting the purchase of a replacement shredder.

Writing an autobiography or biography

An autobiography is a book in which a person writes about his or her own life, while a
biography is an account of someone’s life but written by another person.
(i) Autobiography

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Autobiographies are sometimes confused with memoirs and it is no surprise as the two
have many features in common. For example, both are written in the first person and

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contain details of the subject’s life. However, some distinctions can be made between
the two. For example, a memoir usually explores a specific period of a person’s life,

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whereas an autobiography provides an account of the person’s life from their earliest
years right up to the time of writing.
SE
An autobiography is usually written in a chronological order; uses time connectives
such as before, then, after that and finally; uses the names of real people and events
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and is specific about times, dates and places. It also includes personal memories and
specific details and descriptions; reflects how positive and negative experiences shaped
the author; gives insights into the thoughts, feelings, actions and hopes of the author;
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may include some relevant photographs; and usually ends with a commentary on life,
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reflections on significant large events and hopes and plans for the future.
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(ii) Biography
A biography is an account of someone’s life written by another person. It could be short
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or long enough to fill an entire book. Short biographies explain a person’s basic life facts
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and their importance, but long biographies would go an extra mile and include more
details. You may find yourself in a situation which requires you to write a biography
of a famous person, a close friend or a relative. For this reason, it is important to know
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how to come up with a biography and the important details that you should include in
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it. The lives of many people have interesting bits of information, but you ought to know
what to include in the biography and what to leave out.

Activity 10.12
Read the following extracts from a story book about Tanzania and do the exercise that
follows.

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FOREXTRACT
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A
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He was born in Monduli, Arusha Region, Tanzania, in 1938. From 1948 to 1958,
he was educated in Monduli and Umbwe. In 1961, he joined Tanganyika African
National Union (TANU). Between 1962 and 1963, he studied public administration
in the Federal Republic of Germany. When he returned from Germany, he became
District Executive Officer of Masai District and was later elected to the National
Assembly for Masai Constituency. In 1967, he became Deputy Minister of
Communications, Transport and Labour. He was promoted to the Minister of State
in 1970. In 1972, he became Minister of Defence and National Service. In 1975,
he was elected to the National Assembly again, this time for Monduli. Two years

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later, he became a member of the Central Committee of the ruling party, Chama
Cha Mapinduzi (CCM). In the same year (1977), he was appointed Prime Minister
of the United Republic of Tanzania. He died in April 1984 in a car accident.

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EXTRACT – B

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My name is Zulfa. I was born on 8th May 1925. I went to Mangapwani and Dole
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Schools in Zanzibar. From 1945 to 1964, I worked as a teacher, a head-teacher and
a tutor at various schools and colleges before joining politics. I hold a Diploma
from the University of Adult Education, England.
U
I also earned a certificate of excellence in the English language from the Institute
of Regent, England, in 1960, and a certificate of excellence in the Arabic language
E

from Cairo, Egypt, in 1972. I have held different positions in Zanzibar and in
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the United Republic of Tanzania such as Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of

Education of Zanzibar in 1963. In 1970, I was appointed Minister of State in the
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President’s Office in the United Republic of Tanzania. Between 1982–1983 I was

Minister of Health, Home Affairs, Natural Resources, and Tanzania’s Ambassador
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to Egypt from 1977 to 1982. In 1983, I was appointed Minister of State in the
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Vice-President’s Office, and in 1984 I was elected President of Zanzibar and Vice-
President of the United Republic of Tanzania, respectively.
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FO

Exercise
1. In pairs, discuss the similarities and differences between the two extracts
2. Which extract is an autobiography and which one is a biography? Provide
evidence from the extracts.

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Activity 10.13 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Read the following autobiography and do the exercise that follows.

When I was young, I often stayed with my grandparents, who lived in Maswa District
in Simiyu Region. One day when I was about five years old, my brother, father and
I visited my grandparents. We were to stay there for the night and go home the next
evening. When we arrived, my grandmother came out with a calabash of alcohol in her
hand and embraced me. Both my grandparents drank alcohol. As we entered the house,
the smell of fresh baking wafted into our nostrils.

My grandparents were like how all grandparents should be: loving and caring. After

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this brief period, my brother and I sat on a bench, which was fixed permanently on
the ground. We used to play with our dog, Zombi, who was always happy to see us.

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Perhaps it was because we always fed her under the table. It was our little secret and
my brother and I vowed never to tell it to anybody. Our grandmother started preparing

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some food for us. The meal consisted of locally dried meat before it was boiled in a pot.
It also included freshly picked vegetables of pumpkin leaves from our grandparents’
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farm. It was a well-cooked delicious meal. After eating, we walked with the dog into
the bush. My brother and I roared with laughter as Zombi chased the birds.
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After returning home, we again assumed our seats on the bench, munching on a fresh
cake made of fresh potatoes and cassava. Every day followed a similar pattern. It
involved eating fresh cakes, playing and walking with the dog before returning home.
E

One of my fondest memories was when my grandfather complained furiously that I

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never ate the white of my eggs. After breakfast, my grandmother would join us in a
simple conversation, enjoying a bottle or a calabash of alcohol or a cup of tea. The
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conversation always revolved around her great love for the family. When it was finally
time for us to go back home, my grandfather always had a treat for us.
N
O

This visit may seem rather insignificant. However, this was the last time my brother and
I saw our grandmother. The last time we smelt the perfume that all grandmothers seem
to use was the time she told us she loved us. I will always remember that weekend.
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FO

Exercise
1. Is this story in good order? Are the events arranged in a good sequence?
Explain how orderly and sequentially the history and events are.
2. Does this story have a good beginning, middle and ending? Which parts, if
any, need more information? Explain.
3. Does the story have well-structured sentences? Which of them need refining?
4. Which parts of the story can you visualise?

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Activity 10.14 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. Use the following brain sketch to plan and write your autobiography.

Facts about me A story about me

Brainstorm

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Future goals and wishes What life means to me

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2. Use the following chart to evaluate the quality of your autobiography and
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discuss with your fellow student on what should be done to improve it.
Category 4 3 2 1
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Introduction The The The No attempt was
introduction introduction introduction made to write
is attractive does not does not an introduction
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attract the adequately to the

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reader. preview autobiography.

the events
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included in the
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autobiography
and it does not
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interest the
reader.
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Sequencing Events are Events are Some of the Many events

of events arranged arranged in a events are are not
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(organisation) in a logical logical order, not arranged arranged in

order and but it is clear in a logical logical order.
the way that the events order and this There is little
they are were not distracts the evidence that
presented included in the reader. the writing is
organised. The
draws the brain sketch
brain sketch
interest of assignment.
was not used
the reader. to organise the
work.
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Grammar The writer DOThe writer The writer
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The writer
& spelling has not has made 1–2 has made 3–4 has made
(conventions) made any grammatical grammatical more than 4
grammatical or spelling or spelling grammatical
or spelling mistakes. mistakes. or spelling
mistakes. mistakes that
distract the
attention of the
reader.
Accuracy All the Almost all the Most of the No facts are

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of facts supporting supporting supporting given.
(content) facts (life facts (life facts (life map)
map) all map) and all and all about

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about me about me me stories are
stories are stories are given.

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reported given.
accurately.
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Reflection
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1. What did you like best in this chapter?
2. Can you define narrative, argumentative and descriptive essays?
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3. Are you able to write a narrative, argumentative, descriptive or expository

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essay?
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4. Write any five issues which should be clarified in this chapter.

N
O
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FO

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Eleven Oral and written literature

Introduction

Oral and written literature are a reflection of the socio-economic realities in a

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particular society. Language is a central tool in both oral and written literature; there
is no literature which does not use language. The way the literary artist uses language
enhances our understanding of the society, the world at large and our enjoyment of a

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particular literary work. In this chapter, you will learn the concept of literature and
its major types. You will also learn the relationship between language and literature

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and the major elements of literature. The chapter also contains practical activities
for you to do. The competencies developed from reading this chapter will enable you
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to build the habit of reading extensively, interpreting a variety of literary works and
composing literary works for educational and recreational purposes.
U
Concept of literature
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Literature is a way of experiencing life, time, culture, emotions, deeds and events that
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we are not otherwise able, willing or capable of encountering in any other way. Thus,
it opens doors to new and different life experiences. The critical reading skills that
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we bring to the reading of literary works may be used to read other types of written
materials. The ability to write about literature demonstrates our ability to think critically.
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It also gives us the ability to analyse and interpret literary texts written by other writers.
O

However, there is no single definition of literature. Two approaches will be used in this
book to define literature. The first approach is the criteria approach which attempts to
provide criteria that must be met by all texts so that they are called literature. The second
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approach is the prototypical approach which focuses on a particular good example of

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literature to which other examples bear resemblance. It is suggested that prototypical

literary works are (1) written texts; (2) marked by careful use of language, including
features such as metaphors, well-turned phrases, elegant syntax, rhyme, alliteration and
meter; (3) in a literary genre (poetry, prose, fiction, or drama); (4) read aesthetically;
(5) intended to be read aesthetically; (6) contain many weak implicatures; and (7) are
deliberately somewhat open to interpretation.

The usual approach to define a word in English is to provide a list of criteria, which
must be met. For example, a bird may be defined as an animal which has feathers,

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wings and lays eggs. If an animal FOR ONLINE

meets USE
all of ONLY
these criteria, it is a bird; if it does not,
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then it is not a bird. On the basis of this approach, therefore, literature includes any text
worthy being taught to students by teachers of literature. It is a canon which consists
of the works by which a community defines itself through the course of its history.
It includes work with artistic qualities as a primary focus and works with aesthetic
qualities as a secondary focus.
A different approach to the meaning of words, generally called the prototypical
approach, focuses not on a list of criteria which must be met by each example, but on an
established prototype, a particular good example of the word, to which other examples
of the word bear some resemblance. Therefore, literature may be defined as an oral

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or written art form that uses language creatively to produce meaning. It is marked
by careful choice of words to form specific features such as figures of speech, well-
turned phrases, rhyme, alliteration, meter and other literary techniques. It is the work

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that requires one to make interpretations in order to understand the meaning which is

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always presented implicitly. Poetry, prose fiction and drama are the main genres of
literature.

Activity 11.1
SE
Study the following definitions of literature and show to which way of defining
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literature each of them belongs:
(a) Literature is a product of the human imagination that uses language creatively
E

to reflect man’s relationship with his or her environment (Shakespeare).

N

(b) Literature is a mirror that reflects the reality of the society (Nkwera).
LI

(c) Literature is the use of language in a peculiar way (different from normal
language use) in order to reflect social realities through artistic use of language
N

(Gibbon).
(d) Literature is imaginative and creative writing which uses language and arbitrary
O

assemblage of devices.
(e) Literature is a work of art which uses language creatively to express human
R

realities (the universe is the source of the realities).

FO

(f) Literature is the expression of someone’s emotions (feelings).

Types of literature
The two approaches of defining literature have led scholars to classify literature into
two main types: oral literature and written literature.
(a) Oral literature
Oral literature is a type of literature presented using the word of mouth. The major
forms (genres) of oral literature, depending on the mode of their presentation, include
the following:

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 Oral and written literature

(i) FOR ONLINE

Narratives: These are presented USEnarration
through ONLY in prose, that is, in ordinary
DO NOT DUPLICATE
language and in story form (mode). These are:
• Epic: It is usually a long narrative (story) which may be in either prose or
poetic form; it recounts the life of a person who is seen by the people of his/her
community to have contributed much to its being and existence. Examples
include narratives on Sundiata (Mali), Shaka (Zulu), Ng’wanamalundi
(Sukuma), Mugasha and Ruzika both of Haya and Fumo Lyongo (Swahili).
• Myth: This is a symbolic narrative often set in the distant past and of
unknown origin. It is especially associated with religious belief. They are
specific accounts of gods like Zeus for the Greeks, Osiris for the Egyptians
or Obatala for the Yoruba. Myths can aslo refer to historical figures around

LY
whom religions have been built.They are based on actual events but these
events come to be surrounded by many stories which may or may not be

N
true. This can even be true of recent historical figures like Dedan Kimathi.
He led the historical fight against the colonialists, but people began to

O
attribute supernatural powers to him that he could crawl for 30 miles or
turn himself into a whiteman. Another example is Kinjeketile who led the
SE
people of Southern Tanganyika during Majimaji War against the German in
1905 - 1907.
• Legend: This narrative is similar to a myth. The difference is that the
U
characters are human beings, but humans of higher stature or status like
kings and great warriors; they are usually historical beings who are believed
E

to have lived in the community concerned.

• Fable: This is a brief story, usually with animals as characters. It teaches a
N

moral lesson about life. Fables are sometimes called ‘animal tales’. Fables
always provide a moral lesson, for example, Kalulu the Hare.
LI

• Anecdote: This is a short amusing or interesting story about an incident or a

N

person. It may be real or fictitious.

(ii) Sung and recited/recitative forms (oral poetry): These literary forms are
O

presented or rendered to the audience through singing or recitation. They

include various songs, poems and recitations of different kinds. Some of these
R

examples are work songs, ceremony songs, cradle songs, praise poems, heroic
poems, elegies, lullabies, dirges and chants.
FO

• Lullaby: This is a soothing song or piece of music that is usually sung

to children. In some societies, lullabies are often used to develop
communication skills, to show an emotional intent, to maintain infants and
to regulate behaviour. Lullabies are sung to make babies sleep. These songs
are normally short and repetitive.
• Dirge: This is a sombre song or a lament showing one’s grief. It is usually
sung or performed at a funeral. Dirges are also called songs (or hymns) of
grief or lamentation, especially when they accompany funeral or memorial
rites. They are usually slow, solemn and mournful pieces of music.

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FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

• DO NOT
Chant: A chant is a prayer DUPLICATE
song. Chants are composed for religious matters.
• Cradle song: A cradle song is sung when a baby is born. Cradle songs are
intended to encourage a woman when giving birth to a baby. That is why
they are sometimes called ‘birth songs’.
(iii) Sayings: These are short verbal expressions, including proverbs, riddles, idioms
and tongue-twisterss.
• Proverb: A proverb is a short wise (philosophical) saying meant to deliver a
moral lesson. “He who laughs last laughs longest.” This proverb means that
one should not celebrate too soon. The situation may change.
• Riddle: A riddle is a puzzle, which tests the mind (intelligence) of the

LY
hearer. Riddles are usually presented in statement (a question) and answer (a
response) form. They normally have two sides; the setter and the respondent.
“I am tall when I am young and I am short when I am old.” (statement). “A

N
candle.” (response).

O
• Idiom: An idiom is a group of words (phrases or sentences) used in a language
community to express specific meanings. The meanings are not literal.
SE
Idioms are also sayings whose meanings are not known to all language
users. “Hit the nail on the head.” (Be exactly right about something).
• Tongue-twisters: A tongue-twister is a sentence, statement or a phrase
U
which is difficult to utter, especially among young children or learners of a
new language. A Kiswahili language example may be Kale ka kuku kangu
kakubwa keupe kako kwako? An example from English may be “She sells
E

seashells by the seashore!” Tongue-twisterss are word-games. They help us

N

improve pronunciation and sharpen our fluency.

LI

Generally, oral literature is the repository of critical knowledge, philosophy and

wisdom that presents reality. It provides the meaning of life as experienced by the
N

society at a particular time and space, with its unique existential challenges through
O

narratives, poetry, songs, dance, myths and fables, as well as texts for religious rituals.
It encapsulates the traditional knowledge, beliefs and values about the environment and
the nature of the society itself. It arises in response to the universal aesthetic impulse
R

to provide narratives that explain the nature of life and describe human responses to
FO

challenges.

Oral literature also shows how one is supposed to live, and explains the nature of one’s
relationship with divinity. It contains the society’s knowledge and history, which is
passed on to succeeding generations. In its various forms, oral literature shows the
society’s belief systems. With the arrival of science and technology, the manner of
its preservation, presentation and transmission has changed. People who rendered it
through the word of mouth nowadays use technological devices such as tapes, CDs,
MP3s and other technological devices to record, preserve and transmit oral literature.

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Activity 11.2 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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1. Drawing examples from the oral literature of your community, write an essay of
at least five points each using the following:
(a) the forms of the oral literature of your community;
(b) the mode of preservation and presentation of the oral literature of your
community;
(c) the functions of oral literature in your community; and
(d) the challenges facing the preservation, presentation and transmission of the oral
literature of your community.

LY
2. Pair up with your fellow student and discuss the impact of science and technology
on oral literature. Present your points to the class for a detailed discussion.

N
(b) Written literature

O
This is the literature presented in the written form. It started after the invention of
writing. It has four main genres; poetry, fiction, non-fiction and drama.

Fiction SE
This is a kind of literature that deals with fictitious or imaginative events, characters
and settings in the form of prose. It is a product of the imagination of the writer or
U
author. Fiction draws its material from actual or invented (imaginary) experiences of
the author.
E

(i) Prose
N

Prose is any kind of writing that is narrative in nature and is not in verse or stanza form.
LI

Prose fiction includes novels, short stories and novellas. A novel, as a type of prose, is
an extended form of narrative which has imaginative events, characters and a complex
N

plot. Ayi Kwei Armah’s The Beautiful Ones are Not Yet Born, Chinua Achebe’s A Man
of the People and Danny Safo’s His Excellency the Head of State are novels. A short
O

story is usually shorter than a novel. It may be read from beginning to end without
stopping or in a single day. It usually focuses on one or two main characters facing a
R

single problem or conflict. Ngugi’s Meeting in the Dark is an example. A novella is a

fictitious narrative story consisting of aspects of the novel, only that it is shorter than a
FO

novel and longer than a short story. It usually focuses on one incident or issue with one
or two main characters, and takes place at a single location. In short, a novella does not
have a complex plot. Examples of novellas are Mabala’s Mabala the Farmer and La
Guma’s A Walk in the Night.
(ii) Dramatic literature (or drama)
This is a literary genre that tells a story through action and dialogue. If it is written
to be performed on stage by actors, it is called ‘a play’. Tragedy and comedy are the
two main types of drama. However, there are other types, including tragi-comedy and

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melodrama. Tragedy is a play FOR ONLINE

which USE ONLY
is considered to be serious, that is, involving
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bad experiences of one’s own making in which the hero undergoes suffering and even
death. Examples are Francis Imbuga’s Betrayal in the City and Omtata’s Lwanda
Magere. Comedy is a dramatic work of art that is intended to be funny and humorous.
It usually ends in a peaceful resolution of the main conflict; tragi-comedy is a dramatic
work of art that combines the elements of tragedy and comedy, but here, the hero or
heroine does not end in great suffering or death. Melodrama is a drama which is full
of exciting events and in which the characters and emotions seem too exaggerated to
be true or real. Originally, it was accompanied by a melody, hence the name melody
drama (melodrama). Historical drama is a type of drama which draws its material from
the history of a particular society but usually contains some elements of tragedy and

LY
comedy. The Trial of Dedan Kimathi by Ngugi wa Thiong’o and Micere Mugo and
Ibrahim Hussein’s Kinjeketile are examples of historical dramas.

N
Drama has the same elements as those in novels and short stories (setting, plot,

O
characters, theme, etc.). However, in drama, all the events are shown to the audience.
In addition, drama uses the following techniques:
• SE
Dialogue: This is a conversation between characters. It is the dialogue that
reveals the characters’ qualities, personality traits and reaction or relationships
with other characters.
U
• Soliloquy/monologue: This is a speech made by a character when he or she is
alone on stage, in which a character expresses her or his thoughts and feelings
E

aloud for the benefit of the audience, often in a revealing way.

• Aside: This is a direct address to the audience by a character. The other characters
N

do not hear what is being said.

Stage directions: These are the instructions/notes included in a play or drama
LI

•
which describe how the work should be performed or staged. They show the
N

description of the stage lighting, music, sound effects, costumes, as well as the
emotions or actions of the actors on the stage. These are normally typed in
O

italics and enclosed in parentheses or square brackets.

R

(iii) Poetry
Poetry is a unique literary genre in terms of the way language is used and the way poems
FO

are presented. The content is equally important, but the poet tries to add power to the
content through the language and the form she or he uses. Poetry is a form of literature
that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language such as symbolism and metre to
evoke meaning. Good examples of poetry are Summons and Selected Poems. Poetry
evokes a concentrated imaginative awareness of an experience or specific emotional
response. Poems (like songs) are written in the form of lines called verses and stanzas.
There are many types of poems. However, the popular types are Haiku, sonnet, lyric
and narrative poems. As such, poems may be categorised in terms of form, content and
the number of verses.
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Types of poems according to ‘form’
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There are traditional and modern poems. However, on the basis of the number of verses,
poems are divided into sonnet and ballad, among others.
(a) Traditional poems: These are poems which often have rhyme amd regular
rhythm and a set number of verses such as sonnets, haikus, ballads and blank
verses. For example;
• Sonnet consists of fourteen verses with the same number of beats and a
rhyming pattern.
• Haiku is a traditional Japanese poem which consists of seventeen syllables
only, divided into three lines.

LY
• Ballad is a poem which tells a simple story with rhyme and short stanzas,
normally of four lines. It should be noted that traditional poems are very
few in the present day literature.

N
(b) Modern poems: These do not follow the rules of rhyme, rhythm, number of

O
syllables or equal number of verses. They are also called ‘free verse poems.’
They are free as a poet can write a one-stanza poem with any number of verses
SE
which may vary in length and end with different sounds. They also do not have
regular rhythm but the poets still use rhythm in different ways.
Activity 11.3
U
In groups, write one traditional poem and one modern poem on COVID 19. Observe
E

the rules for each.

N

Types of poems based on ‘content’

LI

The following are the types of poems on the basis of content:

(a) Narrative poems: These tell a story. They normally have all the elements of a
N

story such as characters, narrator, setting, plot and dialogue. A good example of
a narrative poem is “Building the Nation” by Henry Barlow.
O

(b) Lyric poems: These express the feeling(s) of the poet such as love, fear or
hatred. Most modern poems are lyric; for example, “The Dying Child” from
R

the Selected Poems.

FO

(c) Descriptive poems: These describe a particular subject (a person, animal or

inanimate object) often in detail. They are rich in imagery and adjectives, for
example “I love you my gentle one.”
(d) Elegy poems: These express grief. They are poems about the death of an
individual. Sometimes they are lyric poems that mourn the dead.
(e) Epic poems: These are long narrative and serious poems about heroic people.
An epic poem may cover a whole book recounting the deeds of a legendary
character or the history of a particular hero or heroine.

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(f) FORaONLINE
Didactic poems: These give messageUSE ONLY
to the reader, rather than trying to appeal
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to his or her feelings or imagination. A good example is a poem with political
messages; for example, “Frontline” which inspires people to join the fight for
freedom.
(g) Ode poems: They are lyric in nature, and address and celebrate a person, place,
thing or idea.

Activity 11.4
In groups, compose two lyric poems and two didactic poems. Share them with other
members of the class.

LY
Non-fiction
This is a kind of literature that deals with real life materials or events. The works of

N
non-fiction are expected to be read in the same way as fiction. The difference is that
fiction focuses on imaginary events, while non-fiction concentrates on facts. Below are

O
types of non-fiction writings.
(i) Autobiography SE
This is an account of one’s own life. In an autobiography, a person tells the story about
an important event or tells his/her whole life story from the beginning to the time of
U
writing the work. Autobiographies are almost always written in the first person point
of view.
E

The following are forms of autobiography: personal narratives, journals, memoirs,

diaries and letters. Examples of autobiographical novels include The African Child
N

by Camara Laye and Black Docker by Sembene Ousmane. Other examples include
LI

Soyinka’s Ake and Abraham’s Tell Freedom. Benjamin Mkapa and Ali Hassan Mwinyi
have both written their autobiographies.
N

(ii) Biography
O

This is a story of someone’s life and experiences written by someone else. In

biographies, the author may choose to interview the subject and gather information
R

from other sources. The subjects of biographies are often famous people. An example
of a biography is Nyerere of Tanzania written by William Edgett Smith and the more
FO

recent three volume biography Development as Rebellion by I. Shivji, S. Yahya Othman

and N. Kamata
(iii) Essay
This is a short piece of writing through which the writer shares his or her point of view
about a certain subject. It may also be defined as a short work of non-fiction that usually
deals with a single subject. Essays may be formal and informal. A formal essay is one
which is well organised, thoroughly researched and serious in tone. An informal essay
is lighter in tone and usually reflects the writer’s feelings and personality.

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(iv) Article FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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An article carries facts about a specific subject. Articles are always seen in newspapers,
magazines and reference books like encyclopaedias, almanacs and atlases. These days
online platforms also provides room for featuring articles.

Activity 11.5
1. From the knowledge and experience that you already have about literature, which
are the characteristic features of writing that can be called literature among the
following:
(a) creativity

LY
(b) permanence
(c) amenable to constant improvisation

N
(d) artistic record of life and events
(e) appealing to emotions

O
(f) imagination playing a vital role
(g) vocal and aural elements are important.
(h)
(i)
the role of memory is crucial.
presence of the author
SE
(j) performance based
U
(k) rooted in specific time
(l) changing shape constantly
E

2. Write briefly on the aspects that differentiate ‘oral’ from ‘written’ literature.
N

Language and literature

LI

Literature uses language as its medium of expression. No literary work exists or can
properly be understood without the reader understanding the language used. This is
N

because in literature, language is used in a special way in order to entertain and educate
at the same time. This special way of using language, as opposed to ordinary language,
O

can be seen in the following three aspects:

R

(a) Violation or deviation from the generally accepted rules: This is the use of poetic
licence, which allows literary artists to break the rules of language in many different
FO

ways such as going against syntactic rules, semantic rules, morphological rules and
phonological rules. This is especially used in poetry.
(b) Use of archaism: Archaism is an old English that is rarely used these days such as
‘thou’ and ‘wilt’.
(c) Borrowing of linguistic features: Using words from other languages or elements
that are non-literary, for example, Okot P’ Bitek in Song of Lawino.
(d) Employment of literary devices: This is the use of figures of speech like irony,
metaphors, personification, alliteration and similes.

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Ordinary language is the languageFOR ONLINE

used USE ONLY
in day-to-day communication and conversations.
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It is used in advertisements, dialogues, instructions and many others. Literary language
is used in literature and is characterised by special linguistic choices (diction) that a
writer makes to effectively convey his or her idea in a particular genre: prose, poetry
or drama. However, novelists and playwrights also use realistic language suited to the
characters who are speaking. Poets also do likewise, for example in the following poem:

Activity 11.6
Read the poem below and do the exercise that follow.
Building the nation

LY
Today I did my share
In building the nation

N
I drove a Permanent Secretary
To an important urgent function

O
In fact, to a luncheon at the Vic.

The menu reflected its importance

Cold bell beer with small talk,
SE
Then fried chicken with niceties
U
Wine to fill the hollowness of the laughs
Ice-cream to cover the stereotype jokes
E

Coffee to keep the PS awake on return journey.

N

I drove the Permanent Secretary back,

He yawned many times in the back of the car
LI

Then to keep awake, he suddenly asked,

N

Did you have lunch friend?

I replied looking straight ahead
O

And secretly smiling at his belated concern

That I had not, but was slimming!
R

Upon which he said with a seriousness

FO

That amused more than annoyed me,

Mwananchi, I too had none!
I attended to matters of state.
Highly delicate diplomatic duties you know,
And friend, it goes against my grain,
Causes me stomach ulcers and wind.
Ah, he continued, yawning again,
The pain we suffer in building the nation!

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So the PS had ulcers too!
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My ulcers I think are equally painful
Only they are caused by hunger,
Not sumptuous lunches!
So two nation builders
Arrived home this evening
With terrible stomach pains
The result of building the nation
Different ways.

LY
-------Henry Barlow--------

Exercise

N
1. How does the poem violate or deviate from the conventional rules of

O
English? Why do you think the poet does this?
2. Provide examples of the features of old English.
SE
3. With examples, explain how the poet uses language to form figures of
speech.
U
4. Compare and contrast literary language and ordinary language as used in
the poem.
E

Literary language still uses a lot of ordinary language especially in prose and dialogues.
N

However, writers use special language to make it more powerful. Thus, it can use
LI

unfamiliar words which have a very precise meaning. It uses figures of speech in
original ways to create a picture in one’s mind. It sometimes changes the syntax or puts
N

words together in unexpected ways. Thus, the writer uses words like everyone else but
economically to make them more effective. The uniqueness of literary language is seen
O

in the following aspects:

(i) Terseness and rhythm: Literary language, especially the one used in poetry,
R

is generally terse. It means that more information is given in a small context.

Sometimes literary language is bound with latent thoughts. For example, “Eat
FO

more” by Joe Corrie, is a poem which is characterised by terseness and regular

rhythm features. Ordinary language does not tend be terse. In ordinary language,
precision and brevity are not maintained all the time.
(ii) Ambiguity: Ambiguity is a characteristic of literary language. The statement:
“The child is the father of a man” can be used in ordinary language as well
as in literary works. However, in literature, ambiguity is a remarkable feature
created for special effects. Poems, for example, are often open to making
multiple interpretations. In ordinary language, ideas and thoughts are conveyed
in a more straightforward way.

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(iii) FORlanguage
Deviant language: Literary ONLINE USE ONLY as a deviant use of language.
is described
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This is because various devices are used to make the language different from
ordinary language. The use of ordinary language is spontaneous and automatic.
In literary discourse, language deviations are made for two main reasons:
novelty and removal of the restrictions of normal language. The deviations may
be made at different levels, including phonological, morphological, lexical and
semantic levels.
(iv) Creativity and novelty: Literary language has a high degree of creativity and
novelty. The term creativity refers to the artistic way of using language. It
is greatly associated with poetry, prose and drama. Each literary piece has
extraordinary characteristics. However, little deliberate attempt is made to

LY
bring novelty into ordinary language.
(v) Metre and rhyme: Metre is formed by patterning stressed and unstressed

N
syllables in a poetic line, while rhyme is the correspondence of sounds at the
end of words or lines. Metre is a basic rhythmic structure in poetry. Therefore,

O
it produces some musical effects. Apart from metre, rhyme is very important
in traditional poetry. Poetic language often depends on rhyme for poetic effect.

(vi)
Rhyme is not used in ordinary language.SE
Figurative language: The most important feature of literary or poetic language
is its use of various types of figures of speech. These are words and phrases
U
which have deep and surface structure. Among the figures of speech that are
commonly used in literature are irony, similes, metaphors and personification.
E

Although these figures of speech are greatly used in literature, they have their
roots in ordinary language.
N

Elements of literature
LI

The phrase ‘elements of literature’ refers to the constituent parts of a literary work: a
N

poem, a novel or a play. There are two elements of literature: form and content. Content
is what the writer says while form is how he or she says it. Each of these basic elements
O

of literature has its own sub-components or elements.

(a) Form
R

The form of a piece of writing is simply its structure, how it is built and organised.
FO

Literary forms are like the roots of the literary family tree. Genres are, in turn, like the
branches of the family tree. A genre is a specific style or category of writing. Genres
make use of various literary forms. Forms and genres join with content to create the
meaning of a piece of writing. The sub-components of form are given below.
(i) Setting
This is the context, that is, the physical and social environment in which the story takes
place. It is both geographical (where) and historical (when). For example, Hawa the Bus
Driver is set in Dar es Salaam in the 1980s when people were mainly using Usafiri Dar

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es Salaam (UDA) for transport.FORTheONLINE USE refers

setting also ONLY to the social environment. Is it
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the time of peace or war? What are the traditions and beliefs of the society concerned?
In longer works the setting can often change.

Environment

LY
N
Time

O
Weather

Atmosphere
SE
U
Figure 11.1 The family tree of setting

Activity 11.7
E

Collect a variety of fictional and non-fictional texts, read them and then write two
N

sentences that show the setting of each. The sentences should show where and when the
LI

stories took place.

N

(ii) Plot
This is the way a story is told, how one event leads to or causes another event, how
O

characters interact with one another and so on. The plot of a story may be straightforward,
episodic, or may have flashback and flash-forward. At the heart of any plot, there must
R

be a conflict of some kind; that is, what makes people want to continue reading a story.
Generally, a conflict or incident increases the reader’s desire to know the resolution of
FO

the conflict. In a straightforward plot, events or incidents are arranged in a chronological

order, that is, from the beginning to the end through stages: the beginning (exposition),
development (rising action or complication) that intensifies the conflict up to the crisis
or highest point (climax), falling action and finally, the denouncement or resolution of
the conflict constitute the end.
Exposition is where the writer or author introduces the characters and setting by
providing their descriptions and background and shows them in action. It is where
the conflict is introduced as well. Rising action is built during the story as the conflict

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gets more and more critical. It isFOR

alsoONLINE USEsuspense
where the ONLY gets stronger as readers want
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to know how the conflict is resolved. Climax is the moment of greatest tension or
excitement in a story. It is where the conflict reaches its highest point. Falling action
is the beginning of the resolution. It happens as a result of the climax and it shows
that the story is drawing to a close. Denouement (resolution) is the stage where all the
challenges and conflicts are resolved and the story ends.

Climax

Conflict

LY
Falling action
Raising action

N
Exposition Plot diagram
Resolution

O
Figure 11.2 The plot pyramid of a story

SE
The episodic plot shifts focus in terms of setting (place and time), characters and events.
A good example is Achebe’s story in A Man of the People. The story moves forwards
and backwards in presenting incidents and describing characters and what they do.
U
Activity 11.8
E

Describe the incidents of a story that you have read that correspond to each of the
sections of the plot diagram: exposition, rising action, conflict, climax, falling action
N

and resolution
LI

(iii) Characterisation
N

Characters are the fictitious persons, animals or inanimate objects the writer creates.
We learn about their names and appearance, education and work, the way they dress
O

and talk, their ideas, their actions, the problems they face and the way in which they
deal with them and what they learn as the story continues. Characterisation refers
R

to the author’s ability to create characters who are appropriate and who make us feel
something about them: love them, or hate them, support them or want them to fail. The
FO

way we feel about character(s) is another reason for us to continue to read the story.
Characters are most often created as human beings. However, a story may employ
animals, mythical creatures and even inanimate objects as characters. Some characters
are dynamic and change in the course of the story while others are static and do not
grow or change as the story progresses.
There are many different types of characters in literary works and each type performs a
different function. Some of the most important kinds of characters are:

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• Protagonist: The protagonist is the USE
mainONLY
character. The story’s plot centres
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around this character; he/she is usually sympathised with and admired by
the reader, that is, he/she is most often the ‘hero’ of the story. Examples of
protagonists are Okonkwo in Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Dr Stockmann in
Ibsen’s An Enemy of the People are examples.
• Antagonist: The antagonist is the character who obstructs the cause of the
protagonist, the bad boy or girl in the story, like Peter Stockmann in An Enemy
of the People. In the plot, the conflict is between the protagonist and the
antagonist.
• Flat character: A flat character is a one-dimensional character who is completely

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functional. We are not afforded insights into the life of such a character. Minor
characters are often flat.

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• Round character: Unlike a flat character, a round character is complex. We are
given enough insights into his/her interior life, hope, fear, dreams and desires.

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Protagonists are nearly all round characters. Round characters often change and
develop in the course of the story, that is, they are dynamic.

Activity 11.9
SE
Choose one of the plays you have read, and categorise each of the characters as
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protagonist and antagonist; and show how dynamic or static they are.
E

(iv) Language
N

This refers to the words the writer chooses and uses in describing or in telling a story
(diction) and how he/she uses different figures of speech to make the language more
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attractive (figurative language). Figurative language is the use of language where the
intended meaning differs from the actual, literal meanings of the words used. Figures
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of speech include metaphors, similes, hyperbole, personification, verbal irony and

O

oxymoron. Literary language also uses dialogue; that is, the way the writer makes his/
her characters come alive. The language used in any literary work can determine the
tone of that piece of work.
R

Tone refers to how the theme is treated in a literary work. Two works may have the same
FO

theme, but each may adopt a different tone in dealing with the theme. For example, the
tone of a text may be serious, comical, formal, informal, gloomy, joyful, sarcastic or
sentimental. The tone that the writer adopts influences how the reader reads the text. It
shows how the reader will feel about the characters and events described. Tone helps to
create the mood of the text and gives life to the story as a whole.

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Activity 11.10 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Give examples of texts that illustrate the tone (serious, comical, formal, informal,
gloomy, joyful, sarcastic and sentimental) of a literary text. Provide three examples
from the text that show the tone. The examples may be direct quotations from the
narrative or dialogue or from a commentary on the structure of the text.
(v) Style
This refers to the way the writer puts the whole text together, including the language
used, characters and his or her way of telling the story. There are also other smaller
elements of style such as the title. The title of a literary work often carries the general
meaning of the work. The writer chooses a title which makes the reader want to read

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his/her work.
In general, the elements of literature are present in every literary text. These are the

N
ingredients necessary for creating any literary work, including poems, plays, novels
and short stories. Literary devices, on the contrary, are tools and techniques that are

O
used to create specific effects within a work. Think of the narrative techniques used in
prose, the dramatic techniques used in plays/drama and the figurative language used in
SE
poetry. A summary of the elements of form and the devices employed in the respective
genres are presented in the following table.
U
Prose Play/Drama Poetry
Extended writing Dialogue is presented in Economic use of language
using sentences and drama form. is observed using lines and
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paragraphs to present stanzas to present ideas or

N

narratives. Element emotions.

• Playwright
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Element
Element • Plot
• Poet
• Author • Characters
N

• Persona/speaker
• Characters • Setting
• Verses
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• Plot • Themes
• Stanzas
• Setting
• Setting
• Themes Device
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• Themes
• Dramatic techniques
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Device • Stage directions Device

• Narrative techniques • Diction • Sound device
• Flashbacks -Dialogue -Rhyme
• Foreshadowing -Soliloquy -Rhythm
• Figures of speech -Monologue • Diction
• Spectacle -Literary devices/
figures of speech

Table 11.1 Elements of literature in literary works

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(b) Content FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Content refers to what the writer is talking about in the literary work. Content has four
components, which are explained as:

(i) Theme
The theme is the major idea explored in a literary work. It is most often a universal
idea that transcends the limits of culture, ethnicity or language. Theme is a deeper
meaning behind the events in a given story. For example, in Achebe’s novel, A Man of
the People, the main theme is corruption, while in Things Fall Apart the main theme is
the disintegration of African communities as a result of colonisation. However, more

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than one theme may be treated in a single literary work.

To identify or determine the themes of any piece of work, one should look at the

N
characterisation and the conflicts in the work. In addition, one can look at the symbols
and motifs within the text, especially the symbols and motifs that recur. A symbol is

O
something that stands for another thing and a motif is a recurring idea or an element
that has some symbolic significance. Uncovering their significance will reveal the
theme to the reader. SE
Another way to determine the theme of a literary work is to consider the issues on which
U
the writer takes the position. Examples of the issues commonly found in literature are
love and relationships, revenge, justice, betrayal, jealousy, forgiveness, corruption and
E

nepotism.
N

Activity 11.11
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Choose two literary works which you have read and identify the themes. Then write a
brief description of each of the themes and show how the author portrays themes.
N

(ii) Conflict
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Conflict is the heart of the story in a literary work. It is the clash of two opposed
forces, which propel (move) the plot forward. In a literary work a conflict may take
R

the following forms:

• Intra-personal conflict: This occurs within the mind of a character as he/she has
FO

to make choices in relation to the situation he/she is facing. The choices are often
difficult.
• Inter-personal conflict: This occurs when characters or groups of characters clash.
• Social conflict: This occurs when a character or a group of characters may get into
conflict with his or her community, that is, the society turns against him or her. An
Enemy of the People is a good example.
• Environmental conflict: This is when a character or characters come into conflict
with natural forces such as trying to save a community from the floods or getting
lost in the forest.

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(iii) Message FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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In a literary work, message is what the writer wants us to learn from the theme. It is
the main idea that the writer is trying to express in his or her work. The basic questions
to ask oneself when reading a literary work such as a story, are: What is the message
behind this story? What lessons could be learned from this story? What does this story
mean? It should, however, be noted that the message the reader gets from a literary
work is not necessarily the one the author intended to convey. In addition, many writers
do not like to give messages. For example, Ibsen said his role as a writer was to ask
questions not to give answers.

(iv) Philosophy

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In a literary work, philosophy refers to the way the author sees life; it is the author’s
world view. This is expressed through the elements of literature: plot, character, theme,

N
diction (choice and use of words) and setting. It is the author’s position. It enables
readers to see how the author tries to address the underlying social, economic and even

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political problems.

Reflection SE
1. What did you like best in the chapter? Why?
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2. What didn’t you like?
3. What have you gained from this chapter?
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4. Can you now define the term literature and describe its types, forms and
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literary genres?
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N
O
R
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Twelve Analysing literary works

Introduction

Literary analysis is an activity that involves a close reading and interpretation of

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a literary text. We carry out literary analysis to identify the meaning, which can be
presented implicitly or explicitly. Analysing a literary work is very important as it
helps us to understand what is said and how it is said. It enables one to enjoy and

N
learn from the work. In this chapter, you will learn how to analyse and interpret
literary works. You will also learn how to write a literary work. This chapter also

O
contains practical activities intended to strengthen your skills of analysing all the
components of a literary work and writing creatively. The competencies developed
SE
from reading this chapter will enable you to analyse a variety of literary works,
appreciate them and become a good writer.
U
How to do a literary analysis
Analysing literary works requires one to have knowledge of the characteristic features
E

and components of each genre. In addition, literary analysis requires one to understand
N

the principal procedures followed at the time of analysing a literary work. In order to
understand literary works, they should be analysed and appreciated.
LI

Before starting to analyse a particular work of art, whether a novel, a play or a short
N

story, do the following:

(a) Read its title and work out its meaning;
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(b) If the book has a cover picture, study the picture closely and interpret the
message behind it;
R

(c) Look at the blurb (the back cover of the book) to get a brief description of the
FO

book; and
(d) Then use all the information you have gathered as you go about analysing the
work.
Literary analysis requires close reading in order to understand all the nuances of the
text before putting understanding into a broader analysis. In order to carry out a close
reading, you need to ask yourself such questions all the time you are reading.
(a) What is the author trying to say in this paragraph or stanza?
(b) Why did she/he choose these words, images and figures of speech?

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 Analysing literary works

(c) FOR
What does it tell us about theONLINE
theme?USE ONLY
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(d) Why does the character say or do this or that? What does it show us about
them?
(e) Is the character changing? How?
(f) Do you think the words and actions of the character are realistic and consistent?
(g) Do you think the parts of the story are realistic? Is the author realistic in creating
characters? Does the author allow the message to speak for itself?
(h) Is the plot realistic? Do the events arise naturally or are they forced?
(i) Does the plot depend on coincidence?

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This close reading is a process of finding out as much information as possible. The
questions you ask yourself are the bricks you are going to use to build your house later
on. Without the bricks, the detailed information you analyse will be superficial and

N
often wrong. For example, in Mabala the Farmer, Mabala is not a drunkard. He only

O
got drunk once when the farmers played a trick on him. By asking yourself questions
about the context for example, “Why did Mabala get drunk?” “Does he always get
drunk?” you will be able to get a clear picture of Mabala’s character.
SE
Once you have completed the detailed analysis of the chapter/scene/stanza by chapter/
scene/stanza, you will be able to put the information together to discuss the elements of
U
a literary work such as theme, plot, characterisation, setting and diction.
E

Activity 12.1
Select a novel, play or poem you have read and apply the procedures listed in “a–d” to
N

do a literary analysis, providing illustrations from the text.

LI

Doing a literary analysis of a selected work of art

N

Apart from the above procedures, there are procedures which are specific to each of the
genres (novels, poems and plays) pertaining to the analysis of form and content.
O

(a) Analysing a prose work novels and short stories

R

In analysing a novel or a short story, one should focus on the form and content. In
analysing the form, the following elements should be considered:
FO

(i) Plot: This is the arrangement of incidents in a story, from the beginning to
the end. How the story begins, develops and ends. It centres on one or more
conflicts.
(ii) Characters and characterisation: Identify the major (main) and minor characters
and their roles and relationship to the development of the plot (story). Identify
or determine their characteristic features: How they appear, act, speak, feel and
relate to each other and to their environment.

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(iii) Diction: What kind ofFOR ONLINEdoes

language USEtheONLY
author use; and with what effect,
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to convey the message and build the characters? Are the language and style
appropriate to the situation, setting, subject matter and character(s)?

(iv) Setting: This includes the place, time and socio-cultural environment in which
the story is situated.

(v) Point of view: A story may be told from various perspectives, that is, points
of view: first person (as in an autobiography) where it is Odili who tells the
story in Achebe’s A Man of the People or third person, where you have an
omniscient (all-knowing) narrator, for example in His Excellency the Head of

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State. A story may also be told from the second person’s point of view.

(vi) Tone: This is clearly seen in spoken discourse. However, in written discourse,

N
tone is seen in the style of writing and authorial comments or description
of characters, situations and events. Take note of these as you go through a

O
literary text.

SE
Content includes theme(s), messages and philosophy. They are expressed or conveyed
through the plot, character(s), setting and diction. In analysing a literary work, identify
the key elements of form, theme and message. What is the writer trying to say? Of what
U
relevance is it? How successful is the author in conveying her or his message? As you
do your analysis, your essay should have these as its main parts:
E

(i) Introduction; the general summary of the story (synopsis)

N

(ii) Plot; the arrangement of incidents in the story – It shows artistically how the
story begins, develops and ends.
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(iii) Characters and characterisation;

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(iv) Diction; the choice of language and style.

O

(v) Theme(s) and message(s);

R

(vi) Evaluation of the work; and

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(vii) Conclusion; the winding up of the whole work.

However, you can also write an essay on one aspect of the novel like characterisation,
one character, or the choice and use of language, that is diction.

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Activity 12.2 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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“Novels do not just reflect what is happening in society, but they also show what has
happened and predict the future.” Use any two novels you have read to defend the
assertion using four points from each novel.
(b) Analysing a play
The analysis of a play, like the analysis of prose – a novel and a short story, follows
the procedures mentioned earlier. However, there are specific procedures for analysing
plays by looking at the plot, character, diction, setting, theme and spectacle of plays.
(i) Plot: The plot of a play, that is, the way incidents are presented, differs from
that of the novel or short story. Plays are divided into acts and scenes, which are

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segments (parts) in the presentation of the story but the plot will still centre on
the development and resolution of the conflict(s).

N
As you read, note how the incidents are presented and then come up with a
synoptic summary of the story line – act by act and scene by scene. Take note

O
that, in a play, whose plot is linear and chronological, its incidents should have
a cause-effect relationship. A good synoptic summary gives a clear picture of

(ii)
how the storyline progresses. SE
Character(s) and characterisation: The story in a play is told (revealed) through
the actions and words of the characters (main and minor characters). These
U
are the agents through which themes and messages are conveyed. How they
physically look and how they act and speak, move and relate to one another are
E

some of the focal points in analysing a play. For example, a character analysis
N

of Dr Thomas Stockmann in Ibsen’s An Enemy of the People will focus on how

he looks (physically); how he articulates his ideas, his attitudes and philosophy;
LI

how he acts and moves and how he relates with others.

N

(iii) Diction (choice and use of words): The analysis of a play also focuses on the
words used. The words used not only convey the traits of characters and their
O

relationships, but also communicate the intended message and the theme(s) of
the play. Therefore, you have to pay attention to the words used.
R

(iv) Setting: This refers to where and when the story is told. This is very important
in analysing a play. Setting refers to the historical time and place of the story.
FO

For example, Ibrahim Hussein’s Kinjeketile is set in Tanganyika during the

German colonial rule. This is explained in the stage directions.
(v) Theme(s) and messages: Plays do not just tell stories. Instead, they tell stories
to convey messages and to express attitudes, beliefs and philosophies. In
analysing a play, focus should be on the themes (major ideas around which the
story revolves) and the messages (the specific ideas being conveyed). Around
what theme(s) does the story revolve? What message(s) is conveyed? What is
the relevance of the story? These are significant questions to consider.

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(vi) Spectacle (stage picture):FOR ONLINE

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are written to be performed on stage. How they
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are performed on stage is what is referred to as the spectacle, that is, what the
audience sees. The aspects of spectacle are usually given in “stage directions”,
written in italics in the text. These stage directions are important in describing
how characters appear, move and act as well as giving the setting. They also
show how the stage (performing place) has to be set.
As you analyse a play, you have to consider all these aspects: plot, character,
diction, theme, setting and spectacle.

Activity 12.3

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Analyse the relevance of any play you have read to the society. Use eight points to
support your answer.

N
(c) Analysing poems
Analysing poems requires knowledge of different types of poems and procedures which

O
one has to follow in doing the analysis. Below are the steps to be followed.
(i) Read the poem several times in order to get the general idea of what the
SE
poem is talking about, and to understand its structure;
(ii) Paraphrase the poem; that is, write the poem in your own words;
U
(iii) Identify the formal elements namely diction, poetic devices, that is, the
ways that the poet has used verses and stanzas; and sound devices; rhymes,
E

rhythm, metre; literary devices (figures of speech) such as metaphors,

similes, imagery and irony. Explain how the poet has employed these
N

elements to express his/her message; and

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(iv) Do a detailed content analysis. Ask yourself: What is the poem about? What
N

message can one get from the poem? In what way is the poem significant?
How does the poet’s use of formal elements contribute to the understanding
O

of the poem.

Below are additional important questions in analysing a poem:

R

(i) How is the poem structured in terms of rhyming patterns, stanzas and metre?
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(ii) What impression do I get from the refrain (if any)?

(iii) What figures of speech are there in the poem?
(iv) What meaning do I get from the figures of speech?
(v) What message do we get from the poem?
(vi) Is the poem relevant to our society?
(vii) What is the poem about?

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Activity 12.4 FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Following the procedure outlined, analyse Armando Guebuza’s poem “Your Pain”,
individually or in groups.
Your pain
Your pain
yet more my pain
shall suffocate oppression

Your eyes

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yet more my eyes
shall be speaking of the revolt

N
Your scars
yet more my scars

O
will be remembering the whip

My hands
yet more your hands
SE
will be lifted fully armed
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My strength
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yet more your strength

shall overcome imperialism
N

My blood
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yet more your blood

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shall irrigate our victory.

O

Writing a short story

Remember that becoming a successful writer is a journey; many start with short stories,
R

blogs or even poems. If you want to learn how to write a short story or to be a good
story teller or writer, you will have to go through the following:
FO

(a) Generate your idea

Hannah Lee Kidder, a story editor, once said that the best short story ideas would
always come from oneself. They are things we have experienced or read and thought
about. This is because they are the ideas that one will care the most about and be able
to bring to life the easiest. Here are examples of other ideas that one could write about.
(i) A character lost a child years ago, but lives as if the incident happened the day
before.

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 Analysing literary works

(ii) FOR
Your character is in the ONLINE
back of anUSE ONLY trying desperately to revive
ambulance,
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someone who is apparently dead.
(iii) Your character accidentally runs into the wrong person on the street … and so
they cannot sleep at night.
(iv) After a fight with his or her spouse, your character decides to go away.
(v) Your character is caught picking mangoes from his or her neighbour’s tree …
trembling.
(b) Know your character
In order for a short story to be impactful, you have to know your character well. Good

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character development is essential in short stories, since it is around your character that
the story revolves. You only have a certain amount of time to show your readers who
that person is and you cannot do that if you do not even know who your character is.

N
Think about it. If you write a short story about your best friend, whom you have known

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for many years, versus writing one about someone you just met yesterday, you will tell
a better story about your best friend because you know him or her very well. Creative
writing techniques can help you bring out the best or most compelling things about
SE
your characters. However, if it is a story it will not be specifically about your best friend
but you will use her/him as the starting point of the character.
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(c) Outline your short story
Writing an outline before you start writing your story can be very useful. Think about
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what point of view you will use, how you will start the story, how you will get from
the beginning to the main issue, what happens at the climax and what the main issue
N

is in the resolution and at the end. Keep in mind that a short story could close with
LI

something that ends very abruptly or you can flesh it out until there is a satisfying
ending. it can solve the conflict or leave room for readers to continue reflecting.
N

(d) Start with something out of the ordinary

O

In order to catch the attention of the reader, you should create an opening scene that
will catch someone’s attention. Use attention grabbing statements. You do not have
R

to start your short story with something strange, but give your readers a sense of who
your character is by depicting something that has to do with the core focus of your short
FO

story. this is often done by starting the story when the conflict is already strong.
(e) Get your draft done as soon as possible
Write your first draft as soon as you finish all your pre-writing activities. Do not worry
about editing or polishing the story up in any way right now. After all, you cannot
possibly make good edits until you know what the story looks like in full. When you are
learning how to write a short story, resist the urge to get it perfect the first time.

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(f) Edit your short story FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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Editing is where the real magic happens when you are learning how to write a short
story. We all have this idea in our minds that we will get it perfect the first time and that
is just not how writing works. Most of the time, your first draft is just the bare bones of
what is to come, but through line editing, developmental edits and proofreading, it will
transform into something great.

Activity 12.5
1. In pairs, outline the procedure followed in writing a story. Then, each one should
write a short story about something interesting following the procedure explained

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above.
2. Exchange your stories to see how attractive and compelling your stories are.

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Reflection

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1. What did you like best about this chapter? Why?
2. What didn’t you like in this chapter? SE
3. Can you analyse a literary work (a novel, short story, play or poem)?
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E
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LI
N
O
R
FO

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 Bibliography
FOR ONLINE USE ONLY
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Almutairi, N. R. (2018). Effective reading strategies for increasing the reading

comprehension level of third-grade students with learning disabilities.
Dissertations. 3247. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/3247
American Thoracic Society. (2017). ATS patient education series. Am J Respir Crit
Care Med, Vol. 196: 3-4.
Asheli, N. (2018). Advanced level English language: A practical approach. Dar es
Salaam: Ape.
Asheli, N. (2018). Advanced level English language structure and stylistics: A practical

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approach (Fifth Edition). Dar es Salaam: APE Network.
Bailey, S. (2003). Academic writing: a handbook for international students (Third

N
Edition). London: Routledge.
Baker, A. (2006). Ship or sheep? an intermediate pronunciation course (New Edition).

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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carter, R. & McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge grammar of English: A comprehensive
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guide spoken and written English grammar and usage. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, K. Research Question. Accessed online at https://hgs.curtin.edu.au/wp-content/
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uploads/sites/30/2017/03/Research-Questions.pdf on 2nd October 2021.
Gilbert J. B. (2008). Teaching pronunciation using the prosody pyramid. Cambridge:
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Cambridge University Press.

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Hfsa, N. (2021). Plagiarism: A global phenomenon. Journal of education and practice,

Vol. 12 (3): 53 - 59.
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Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. K. (2005). A student’s introduction to English

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grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

John, J. (2012). Advanced English language forms 5 & 6 . Dar es Salaam: Oxford
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University Press.
Kelly, G. (2000). How to teach pronunciation. Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited.
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Kifunda, J. L. (2021). Basic language skills (Third Edition). Dar es Salaam: Idha
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General Supply.
Kinunda, J. E. & Ndambo G. S. (2017). Advanced level English language 1 forms 5 &
6. Dar es Salaam: Nyambari Nyangwine Group of Companies .
Linda, L. (2010). Tips for teaching pronunciation: A practical approach. N.Y: Pearson
Longman.
Madumulla, J. S. (2005). Hali ya Usomaji wa Riwaya katika Tanzania. In Sewangi,
S S. and Madumulla, J. S. (2006) (eds). Makala ya kongamano la taifa la
jubilee ya TUKI-2005. Dar es Salaam: TUKI.

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Mapunda, G. (2015). The changing roles of USE ONLY
English in Tanzania: Past and present. In
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Michieka, M. and Ellindi,Y. (Eds). The changing roles in English in Eastern
Africa. Illinois, USA: Common Ground Publishing LLC (pp 34 - 57)
Masele, E. J. (2021). Learning language in literature: A resource book for students.
Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota.
Mnyawi, F. (2019). Contemporary English for advanced level (Forms 5 & 6) (Third
Edition). Dar es Salaam: Karljamer Publishers Limited.
MoEVT (2009). English language syllabus for advanced secondary education form
V – VI. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Institute of Education.
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