Introduction to Animal Science

ANSCI 100

INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL
SCIENCE (ANSCI 100)

EDEN JOY V. MANALO

Instructor
Animal Science

By: Eden Joy V. Manalo / [email protected] 1

Introduction to Animal Science
ANSCI 100

ASCOT VISION, MISSION and DEPARTMENT GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Vision of the College

A Globally – recognized Scientific and Technological University by 2027.

Mission of the College

ASCOT shall produce globally-competitive, ethically-upright and gender-responsive graduates

in the fields of arts and sciences, forestry, agriculture, education, information technology,
industrial technology, engineering, marine and

DEPARTMENT GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Department goals:

to provide quality education in the field of agriculture, develop and strengthen student skills,
conduct relevant research, and studies responsive to extension programs and interventions
designed to attain national and regional development goal.

Department objectives:

 to produce agricultural researchers, entrepreneurs and competent graduates that will

promote socio-economic growth in the community;
 to produce high caliber graduates needed primarily in learning and research institutions
and industries;
 to attain efficient and functional organizational structure and support component with
competent human resources and improved physical facilities to sustain operation; and
 to establish productive linkages and effective collaboration with other organization
towards concerted agricultural development in the province.

Course Code: ANSCI 100 Credit Units: 3

Pre-requisite/s: None Co-requisite/s: None
Lecture Hours: 2 hours/week Laboratory Hours: 3 hours/week
Course Description: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
Significance and economic importance of animal science in the field of agriculture.
Principles of breeding, anatomy and physiology, and nutrition in relation to production,
processing and marketing and animal products.

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. understand and appreciate the interrelationship and role of plants, animal and man
in the ecological system;
2. identify and understand the external and internal parts of farm animals and learn the
function of each part;
3. learn and appreciate the roles and contributions of animal genetics in livestock and
poultry production;
4. identify the basic nutrients, their sources and functions in animal nutrition;
5. learn the basic knowledge about animal health and learn the common diseases
affecting livestock and poultry; and
6. learn the basic information on slaughtering, meat fabrication (with respect to
individual differences beliefs and ethics) composition of farm animals.

CLASS POLICIES AND COURSE REQUIREMENTS:

1. The students and instructor are not physically present in the classroom environment
during lecture discussion; thus, classes will be done online via Google Meet.
2. Students are always expected to display proper decorum and behavior during on-line or
face to face meetings.
3. The module copyrighted by the teacher will be the main instructional material that be used
by the students.
4. Students should take as per schedule and passed the given assignments, quizzes, exams
and project.
5. Laboratory will be done face to face. Field activities-PPE (boots, hat, long-sleeved, long
pants, etc.), bolo and other laboratory materials needed.
6. Failed to pass requirements during the first term with no valid reasons will be marked as
unofficially dropped.
7. Consultation hours will be at 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM, Monday to Saturday via FB group.

By: Eden Joy V. Manalo / [email protected] 2

Introduction to Animal Science
ANSCI 100

Name:________________________________ Rating: ______________________

Year/Section: __________________________ Signature: ____________________

PRE-TEST
INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

Instruction. Select the nearest correct answer to the following statements. Write the letter of
your answer on the space provide for:

1. ____ Conversion of forage and industrial wastes and household refusal into high value
products is a contribution of livestock and poultry to agricultural development in the form
of:
a. Food Reserve c. Risk reduction
b. Export Earnings d. Value Added

2. ____ A person who is working in an abattoir pursues a career as

a. Feed Quality Inspector c. Operation Manager
b. Product Processing Manager d. Sales Representative

3. ____ Animal food products remain as the prime food items in human diet because
a. Animal proteins are considered higher in quality than plant proteins
b. Food is the most important contribution of animals to human
c. Animal meat products are commonly found in the market
d. All of the above

4. ____ It is the leading industry in terms of population and the most consumed commodity in
the world and local markets
a. Chicken b. Swine c. Carabao d. Cattle

5. ____ It remains to be an irreplaceable power source for tillage operation especially for the
small hold farming system
a. Chicken c. Carabao
b. Swine d. Cattle

6. ____ Among the avian species it is considered the most versatile because it can subsist
under a wide range of climatic and nutritional changes
a. Chicken c. Ducks
b. Quails d. Turkeys

7. ____ A person who is raising quails and sells quail eggs and studies the responses of the
birds to different types of feeds and exposure to housing management in relation to the
effects on the body system is called
a. Animal Caretaker c. Animal Husbandman
b. Animal Researcher d. Animal Scientist

8. ____ Constraints on the available supplies of the animal products and consumers of the
same in relation to price changes is a problem about
a. Ecological c. Socio-economic
b. Biological d. None of the above

9. ____ Animals exposed to high temperature may experience the following expect
a. Decrease Water Intake c. Panting
b. Increase Body Temperature d. Sweating

10. ____ If you are a feed quality inspector, you are working in a
a. Feed Milling Company c. Food Processing Company
b. Veterinary Drug Company d. All of the Above

By: Eden Joy V. Manalo / [email protected] 3

Introduction to Animal Science
ANSCI 100

Module 1
INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

I. INTRODUCTION

The animal industry is a major component of the Philippine agriculture contributing

hundred billions of pesos in terms of income to the country’s economy. The industry continues
to benefits its allied industries as well as the manpower sector with more jobs and
opportunities for the establishments of agri-based enterprises.
Animals provide food, fiber, and leather for clothing, fuel, and draft power or
transportation and soil tillage which greatly contribute in the growth and survival of humanity.
Each animal has its needs such as food, shelter and reproduction. Moreover, each species is
influenced by the physical environment where it inhabits, and by other plants, animals and
even humans that make up its biological environment.
Therefore, studying animal science is imperative to gain proper knowledge and
understanding about animals. This leads to the development of appropriate technologies,
management practices and interventions to be applied in animal production, making it efficient
and profitable.
Module 1 focuses on understanding the ecosystem and the management decisions
applied based on scientific and economic principles. This module explains the influence of
physical environment where it inhabits, and by other plants, animals and even humans that
make up its biological environment. It also tackles the fundamental disciplines that deal with
animal life such as genetics and breeding, anatomy and physiology, nutrition and animal
health. It also discusses products from different farm animals; their uses, classification, forms
and other characteristics. Moreover, the module presents the recent population inventories of
poultry and livestock to provide a picture of the industry to the students and other readers.

II. OBJECTIVES

This module aims to discuss the interrelationship of plants, animals and man, and their
roles in the ecological system. This will also help the students appreciate the contributions of
animals to agricultural development and the economy in general.
Specifically;
1. To discuss the relationship of man, animals and the ecosystem;
2. To give the economic benefits of animal to mankind;
3. To determine the contributions of animals to agricultural development and its relation to
population problem; and
4. To appreciate the development of animal science and how it affects the animal industry.

III. LEARNING CONTENTS

1. MAN, ANIMAL AND ECOSYTEM

With increased prosperity, people are consuming more meat and dairy products every
year. Global meat production is projected to more than double from 229 million tons in
1999/2001 to 465 million tons in 2050, while milk output is set to climb from 580 to 1043 million
tons.
The global livestock sector is growing faster than any other agricultural sub-sector. It
provides livelihoods to about 1.3 billion people and contributes about 40 percent to global
agricultural output. But such rapid growth exacts a steep environment price. The livestock
sector generates more greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalent – 8 percent
– than transport. It is also a major source of land and water degradation.
When emissions from land use and land use change are included, the livestock sector
accounts for 9 percent of CO2 deriving from human-related activities, but produce as much
larger share of even more harmful greenhouse gases. It generates 65 percent of the human –
related nitrous oxide, which as
296 times the Global Warming Potential (GWP) of CO2. Most of this comes from manure and
it accounts for respectively 37 percent of all human-induced methane (23 times as warning as
CO2), which is largely produced by the digestive system of ruminants, and 64 percent of
ammonia, which contributes significantly to acid rain. Livestock now use 30 percent of the
earth’s entire land surface, mostly permanent pasture but also including 33 percent of the
global arable land used to producing feed for livestock, the report notes. As forest are cleared
to create new pastures, it is a major driver of deforestation, especially in Latin America where,
for example, some 70 percent of former forests in Amazon have been turned over to grazing.

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Introduction to Animal Science
ANSCI 100

The livestock business, however, is among the most damaging sector to the earth’s
increasingly scarce water resources, contributing among other things to water pollution,
eutrophication and the degeneration of coral reefs. The major polluting agents are animal
wastes, antibiotics and hormones, chemical from tanneries, fertilizers and the pesticides used
to spray feed crops. Widespread overgrazing disturbs water cycles, reducing replenishment of
above and below ground water resources. Significantly amounts of water are withdrawn for the
production of feed. (http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html)

Animal Husbandry – refers to the breeding, feeding, care and management of animals for
the purpose of making profit. Also knowns as Zootechnics.
Animal Science – refers not only to animal husbandry but also to other fundamental sciences
related to animals like nutrition, physiology, etc.

Goals of Animal Husbandry:

To improve animal production within the inevitable confines set by the requirements of
sound, sustainable animal husbandry the following are considered:
1. Development of Animal Disease Control
2. Reproduction
3. Genetic Innovation
4. Nutritional Efficiency
5. Product Quality
6. Conducive Environment

Concerns of Animal Husbandry:

1. Role of livestock in the total bio-economic system
2. Contributions of animals to soil fertility and structure
3. Effects of grazing on growth, tilling and survival of plants
4. Use of crops by-products and residues as animal feed or bedding
5. Industrial by-products returned to farm ecosystem as animal feeds, fertilizers, etc.
6. Recycling of animal by-products
7. Animal-soil-crop integration
8. Use of animals as source of farm power (draught)
9. Elimination of pests, predators, weeds and diseases

Factors important in Animal Management

1. MOTIVATION of the persons involved
2. Level of KNOWLEDGE and SKILL
3. HOUSING: localization (site), lay-out, constructions
4. CLIMATE: macro and micro climate
5. NUTRITION and FEEDS
6. GENETICS (breeds, crosses and breeding)
7. HEALTH CARE: hygiene, daily health control, routine prevention, treatments
8. PRODUCT TECHNOLGY: milk, eggs, meat, manure
9. GENERAL MANAGEMENT: planning, good order, regularity of all activities, tranquility,
attention

Three (3) main categories of constraints to improve animal production in developing

countries:
a. Ecological Factors – land topography, soil fertility, temperature, relative humidity, plant
growing season
b. Biological Factors – feed and water supply, animal diseases, genotype
c. Socio-economic Factors- supply and demand relationship, input-output ratio, prices,
religion, culture, and tradition, politics

Environmental influences on Animal Production:

a. Feed Supply – seasonality of feeds
- Irrigation water shortage or limited rainfall may affect plant growth and
development
b. Light - influences hair growth (longer day length-short hair, longer night length-longer
hair)
c. Rainfall and Humidity- when rainfall is heavy and humidity is high, pasture grows faster
and its nutritive value becomes less due to more cellulose in roughage resulting to
small size grazing animals
- Adequate rainfall, air temperature is low and water evaporation is limited,
grasses will contain smaller proportion of cellulose resulting in faster growth of
animals than those grazing in hot humid areas

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Introduction to Animal Science
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d. Temperature – affects growth and production efficiency of animals at higher

temperature

2. ANIMALS AND THEIR ECONOMIC UTILITY

Global livestock production remains one of the most important components of the
agricultural sector, sustaining human life in a number of important ways. In addition to providing
a source of milk and meat, they provide work, as plow animals; fuel and fertilizer, in the form of
manure; a source of clothing, such as leather from dried skins and wool from sheep; and as
transportation, the domestication of horses and camels have allowed humans to travel long
distances. Livestock also contributes greatly to the livelihoods of 70 percent of the rural
poor.(http://www.enviroliteracy.org/subcategory.php/219.html)

Animal attributes that enhance the ability of an agricultural system to produce food for
man:
a. Animals can feed on and convert plants and other materials which would have otherwise
gone to waste, into rich human food
b. Animal products have chemical composition that closely resemble man’s dietary
requirement and therefore more digestible and nutritious

Since food is the most important contribution of animals to human welfare, animals have
been domesticated by man getting some benefits such as skin and hide for clothing and shelter,
animal power for transport, beauty, grace and subservient temperament for man’s amusement
and companion. Certain animal products and by-products are also used for commercial
products such as glue from horns, fertilizer and feed bones and offals, insulated clothing from
feathers, etc.

Contributions of livestock and poultry to agricultural development:

a. Good quality protein source – eggs, beef, pork, chevon, lamb, poultry, milk, game
meat
b. Draft power – buffalo, horses, oxen, cattle
c. Food reserve – food animals like goat and sheep, pigs
d. Capital accumulation – livestock as living bank of reserve capital
e. Value added – conversion of forage, industrial wastes and household refusal into high
value products
f. Manure – nutrients to plants, fuel building material
g. Equity – landless farmer who cannot till land for crop production
h. Risk reduction – price fluctuations of crops can be abated by livestock sales
i. Environmental Stability- upper watershed development projects, bench terracing, crop
production system, forage, small ruminants – prevent erosion
j. Gross domestic product – food economy
k. Export earnings – foreign exchange when domestic production exceeds domestic
demands

3. ANIMAL AGRICULTURE AND THE HUMAN POPULATION

The population explosion together with a poor distribution of food is among the world’s
greatest problems today. In many highly populated, poorly develop countries most children
suffer from malnutrition in their early years. The food supply in these overpopulated areas
consist mostly of starchy grains, which supply enough energy for life processes, but lack the
protein necessary for proper growth and repair of body tissues. High quality protein is necessary
for growth and good heath of animals and man. It is the nutrient in shortest supply on a
worldwide basis. Plant proteins usually do not provide a good balance of amino acids. Animal
proteins are superior in this respect. Animal products such as meat, milk and eggs still remain
as the major sources of high quality protein for humans.
As of January 2020, the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS) recorded date on the
different per capita consumption of the following protein products from some farm animals with
the country’s human population (2020) of over 109 million.

Animal Product Per Capita Consumption (kg)

Beef 3.15
Pork 25.8 (includes offal and processed meat)
Poultry 13.71
Eggs 7.6
Milk 4.4
Fish 33.2

By: Eden Joy V. Manalo / [email protected] 6

Introduction to Animal Science
ANSCI 100

4. ANIMAL SCIENCE AND THE ANIMAL INDUSTRY

With the world population increasing and considering that the nutritional level of a large
percentage of the population is presently below desired standards, the projected needs for
animal products presents a tremendous challenge to all involve in activities related to their
production. Present trends in consumption of animal products will increase as the economic
conditions of the world’s people become more favorable.
The application of improved methods of breeding, feeding management, and disease
control during the last few years has greatly increased the efficiency of livestock production.
Nowadays, the advent of computer and computer software has made animal production
more sophisticated and efficient. In conjunction with advances in electronics, and other sciences
and technologies, computerized feeding of dairy cows, computerized feed formulation,

computerized record keeping, computerized matching of dairy cows with the right bull, and
environmentally-controlled housing are now commonly employed in large scale commercial
farms.

Inventory of the Philippine Livestock and Poultry Industry

The Swine Industry

Swine industry has remained leading among other livestock and poultry industries in
production, volume and value. From 2014 to 2018, swine population was consistently increasing
annually, except in 2014 and 2017. In 2014, swine inventory went down by 0.3 percent and 0.4
percent in 2018. The highest annual rate was noted in 2016 with 4.0 percent. In terms of stocks,
the highest was recorded in 2018 with 12,604 thousand heads while lowest inventory was
observed in 2014 with 11,802 thousand heads. Swine inventory for the period 2014 to 2018 was
highest in Central Luzon among regions and Bulacan among provinces.
Being the biggest and organized industry among the local livestock, swine industry
provides business and employment opportunities. It also provides additional income to small
hold swine raisers. Along with poultry industry, it also triggers the development of allied
industries i.e., veterinary drug, feed milling, equipment manufacturing and others.

The Cattle Industry

Cattle inventory exhibited an upward trend from 2014 to 2018, except in 2017 where
inventory slightly decreased by 0.2 percent. The highest annual rate of increase from 2014 to
2018 was recorded in 2015 with 0.9 percent. In terms of levels, highest inventory was noted in
2018 with 2,554 thousand heads while lowest was in 2014 with 2,512 thousand heads. Cattle
inventory was consistently highest in Ilocos Region in 2018 and Pangasinan among provinces,
except in 2017 where most of cattle stocks were raised in Batangas.

The Carabao Industry

From 2014 to 2018, carabao inventory was increasing annually, except in 2014 where
inventory dropped by 2.2 percent. The highest annual rate of increase for the five-year period
was observed in 2016 with 0.8 percent. In terms of levels, the highest inventory was recorded in
2018 with 2,883 thousand heads while the lowest was noted in 2014 with 2,847 thousand
heads. Among regions, Western Visayas had the highest carabao inventory in the period 2014-
2017. While in 2018, Bicol Region ranked first. At the provincial ranking, the highest carabao
inventory was registered in the province of Leyte from 2014 to 2018.

The Dairy Industry

Annual volume of dairy production (liveweight) from 2014 to 2018 went up at an average
annual rate of 4.7 percent with 2017 registering the highest annual rate. In terms of production,
the highest was noted in 2018 with 23.69 thousand metric tons while the lowest was recorded in
2014 with 19.73 thousand metric tons.

The Goat Industry

In the period 2014-2018, goat inventory was stable. Inventory ranged from 3,663
thousand heads to 3,725 thousand heads. In terms of level, inventory was lowest in 2016 with
3,663 thousand heads or a decrease of 0.3 percent compared with its level in 2015. Highest
inventory was recorded in 2018 at 3,725 thousand heads or an increase of 0.4 percent from the

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Introduction to Animal Science
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2017 inventory of 3,710 thousand heads. Goat inventory was highest in Western Visayas
among regions in 2014 to 2018. Among provinces, highest goat inventory was recorded in the
province of Cebu during the period covered in this report.

The Poultry Industry

The country’s chicken inventory is composed of broiler, layer and native/improved

chicken population. From 2014 to 2018, native /improved chicken was the most dominant type
of chicken in the country. Most of the native/improved chicken was raised in Western Visayas.
In 2014, native/improved chicken was highest in Iloilo but Negros Occidental ranked first in
years 2015 to 2018. On the other hand, broiler chicken inventory was highest in Central Luzon
among regions. However, top provinces of broiler inventory varied during the five-year period.
Broiler inventory was highest in Pampanga in 2014 and 2018 while in 2015 and 2017 stocks
were abundant in Misamis Oriental and Nueva Ecija in 2016. For layer chicken, CALABARZON
ranked first in terms of inventory among regions and Batangas among provinces.

Duck inventory from 2015 to 2018 increased annually. However, duck inventory
declined in 2014 with an annual rate of decrease of 2.5 percent. During the five-year period
covered in this report, duck inventory was at its highest in 2018 with 11,220 thousand birds
while the lowest count was observed in 2014 with 9,886 thousand birds. In terms of growth rate,
highest growth was noted in 2016 with annual growth of 4.5 percent. From 2014 to 2018, most
of the duck inventory were raised in Central Luzon, particularly in the provinces of Pampanga
and Bulacan.

5. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN ANIMAL SCIENCE

Animal-related careers listed below should be considered for a productive and efficient
livestock and poultry industry.

Product sales and promotion; Feed Milling Industry

Plant Manager/Supervisor;
Nutritionist;
Feed quality Inspector;
Feed Dealer/Distributor;

Product sales and promotion; Pharmaceuticals

Laboratory Technician; Veterinary drugs and supplies industry
Product testing Aids;
Quality assurance Inspector;

Plant operations Manager/Supervisor; Food/Meat Processing

Food testing Aids;
Quality assurance Inspector;
Sanitation Inspector

Operations Manager/Supervisor; Abattoir Operation

Meat Fabricator;
Meat Inspector;
Sanitation Inspector

Product research and development; Dairy Processing

Product processing;
Promotion and sales

Product design and testing; Equipment Manufacturing

Product sales and promotion;

Loans; Feasibility Studies; Lending investments, Financing and Insurance

Property Assurance

Farm Consultant; Consultancy

Planning Consultant;
Risk Assessment

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Introduction to Animal Science
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Academic, Training and Extension Agents Teaching

Field Technician; Extension Works

Field Implementation;
Monitoring and evaluation Technician

Research Supervisor; Research

Research Assistant;
Technology Validation and Promotion

Farm Manager/Supervisor; Livestock and Poultry Farm Operations

Farm Accounting and book Keeper;
Product Marketing

Since the ancient days, animals have long been one of the world’s most valuable
resources. They provide food, fiber and leather for clothing, fuel and draft power for
transportation and soil tillage which greatly contributed in the growth an survival of humanity. As
animals continue to play their role as provider in our modern day, their production has become a
lucrative and highly competitive agribusiness enterprise. Modern animal agriculture is the
business of producing, processing and marketing high-quality protein (meat, milk and eggs),
fiber and other animal products for human consumption. At present, many have already been
successful in this venture. In Addition, other related agricultural enterprises are being benefited
in the process. Today, more people are becoming very interested to invest in animal production.

IV. REFERENCES

BADUA, A.T., DOMINGO, I.J., GALAMGAM, A.S., MARTIN, E.A., AND M.S. SUBA. Lecture
Manual in ANSCI 101. Introduction to Animal Science. ISBN: 978-971-705-360-8.
Central Luzon State University, Center for Educational Resources Development and
Services (CERDS). Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines 3120. Telefax: 044-
456-5709. Email: [email protected]

Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA). 2014-2018. Animal Inventory

http//www.psa.gov.ph/situation. Retrieved on: September 2019

CAMPBELL, J.R., and J.F. LASLEY. 1975. The Science of Animals that Serves Mankind. 2nd
ed.New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company

FAO. Livestock: A Major Threat to Environment. FAO Newsroom. 29 November 2006, Rome

J.F. LASLEY. 19. Genetics of Livestock Improvement. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company

(http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html)

(http://www.enviroliteracy.org/subcategory.php/219.html)

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Introduction to Animal Science
ANSCI 100

Name:________________________________ Rating: ______________________

Year/Section: __________________________ Signature: ____________________

POST TEST
INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

Instruction. Write T if the statement is correct and F if otherwise. Explain your answer briefly in
2 to 3 sentences. (5 points). Write it in a yellow pad and submit it on our schedule on module 2.

1. Livestock and poultry can convert forage and Industrial wastes and household refusal into
high value products which is an important contribution to agricultural development.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

2. Animal proteins are considered higher in quality than plant proteins, thus, food is the most
important contribution of animals to human.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

3. Chicken is the leading industry in terms of population and the most consumed commodity in
the world and local markets.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

4. Carabao remains to be an irreplaceable power source for tillage operation especially for the
small hold farming system.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

5. Constraints on the available supplies of the animal products and consumers of the same in
relation to price changes is a socio-economic related problem.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

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Introduction to Animal Science
ANSCI 100

Name:________________________________ Rating: ______________________

Year/Section: __________________________ Signature: ____________________

Assignment No. 1

Instructions: Research the different terms using in Animal Production (at least 20 Species of
Farm Animals). Write it in a yellow pad, memorized the given terms and passed it on your next
laboratory schedule.

Example:
Animals Male Female Act of Breeding Act of Giving Birth
1. Pig / Swine Boar Gilt Coupling Farrowing
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Laboratory Activity No. 1

Instructions: Express how you understand the concepts of the following thru storytelling,
singing, dancing or poster making. Actual presentation will be done on your first laboratory
schedule.

1. ASCOT’s Vision, Mission and GAD

2. DAAS Department Goals and Objectives

Laboratory Activity No. 2

Name:________________________________ Rating: ______________________

Year/Section: __________________________ Signature: ____________________

Instructions: Research and answer the following. Write it in a yellow pad, memorized the given
farm animals and its scientific names and passed it on your next laboratory schedule.

1. List 20 species of Farm Animals and their Scientific Names.

Example:
Animals Scientific Name

3. Goat Capra hircus

2. Give 6 farm animal inventory, and write at least 3 paragraph per animals on their
demand projection.

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Introduction to Animal Science
ANSCI 100

Name:________________________________ Rating: ______________________

Year/Section: __________________________ Signature: ____________________

PRE-TEST
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

Instruction. Select the nearest correct answer to the following statements. Write the letter of
your answer on the space provided for:

1. ____ System of the body responsible for the removal of waste products from the blood
b. Cardiovascular c. Urinary
c. Digestive d. Lymphatic

2. ____ Crop in chicken is responsible for the following functions except

a. Holding and moistening of feeds
b. Fermentation of feeds
c. Grinding of softened feeds
d. Breakdown of some fermentable carbohydrates

3. ____ Newborn calf, kid and other ruminants are characterized as follows except
a. A true ruminant c. Ruminant but not capable for rumination
b. Non-ruminant d. All of the above

4. ____ Gall bladder is absent in some animals except

a. Horse c. Pig
b. Deer d. Elephant

5. ____ Bile is secreted in the

a. Liver c. Small Intestine
b. Gall Bladder d. Kidney

6. ____ A kind of blood cell (cellular element) which is non-nucleated and contains red pigment
called hemoglobin
a. Lymphocyte c. Monocyte
b. Erythrocyte d. Thrombocyte

7. ____ Is the site of implantation of the fertilized ovum in the livestock

a. Cervix c. Oviduct
b. Vagina d. Horns of uterus

8. ____ Refers to the union of sperm and ovum.

a. Syngamy c. Sperm migration
b. Fertilization d. Conjugation

9. _____ Induced ovulatory is an animal that does not ovulate unless there is copulation. Which
among the following is an induced ovulatory?
a. Rabbit c. Cattle
b. Sheep d. Pig

10. _____ Is the hormone that stimulates ovulation of mature ovarian follicles.
a. Progesterone c. Testosterone
b. Luteinizing Hormone d. Follicle Stimulating Hormone

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Introduction to Animal Science
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Module 2
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

I. INTRODUCTION

Anatomy is a science that deals with the form and structure of all organisms.
Physiology is a science that deals with the study of the integrated functions of the body and the
functions of all its parts (systems, organs, tissues, cells, and cell components), including
biophysical and biochemical processes.
In the production of animal and animal products like meat, eggs, and milk, some basic
principles of animal physiology must be learned to fully comprehend the intricacies or
complexities of the process. It is also inevitable that animal functions and processes be
learned in a holistic approach encompassing other disciplines in animal reproduction,
breeding, nutrition and disease control.
Module 2 provides information in the study of forms and functions of the body of farm
animals. It presents the external and internal parts of farm animals which are vital in learning
and understanding the creation and development of an animal.

II. OBJECTIVES

The main objective of module 2 is to provide the basic knowledge in understanding the
anatomy and physiology of farm animals.
Specifically;

1. To identify the external and internal parts of farm animals and learned the functions of each
part;
2. To estimate body weight using body parts of farm animals;
3. To explain the procedures in taking the vital signs of farm animals and relate these to the
animal’s health condition;
4. To classify farm animals according to their digestive system; and
5. To discuss and appreciate the parts and functions of the reproductive system.

III. LEARNING CONTENTS

A. EXTERNAL PARTS:

1. THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

- The word INTEGUMENT comes from LATIN word that means “to cover”.
- the integument as an organ, and is an alternative name for skin
- SKIN and its accessories such as the HAIR, NAILS, and a VARIETY OF GLANDS, make
up the integumentary.

Functions of the integumentary system:

1. Serves as a barrier against infection and injury
2. Helps to regulate body temperature
3. Removes the waste products from the body
4. Provides protection against ultraviolet radiation from the sun
5. Generates vitamin D.

2. SKIN- is one of the largest organs of the body, making up 6-8% of the body weight. It is
tough, resilient and highly elastic. The skin is attached to the underlying structure by the
subcutaneous tissue. This consist mainly of facia (a form of fibrous connective tissue) and fatty
tissue.
Cross section of the skin

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The skin is composed of three tissues or layers of cells:

A. Epidermis- the outer most layer of Skin is known as the EPIDERMIS. It is composed of
many sheets of flattened, scaly epithelial cells. This is a thin outer layer of skin.
- Its layers are made of mostly DEAD CELLS.

Five distinct sub-layers:

1. Stratum corneum- the outermost layer, made of 25-30 layers of dead flat keratinocytes.
2. Stratum lucidum- only found in the fingertips, palms of hands, and soles of Fett. This is
made up of 3 - 5 layers of flat dead keratinocytes.
3. Stratum granulosum-made up of 3-5 layers of keratinocytes, site of keratin formation.
4. Stratum spinosum- appears covered in thornlike spikes, provide strength and flexibility to
the skin.
5.Stratum basale- the deepest layer, made up of a single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells.

The epidermis is made up of 4 cell types:

1. Keratinocytes-produce keratin protein a fibrous protein that helps protects the epidermis.
2. Melanocytes-produces the brown pigment melanin. These are cells located in the bottom
layer of the skin's epidermis and in the middle layer of the eye, the uvea. Through a
process called melanogenesis, these cells produce melanin, a pigment in the skin,
eyes, and hair.
3.Langerhan Cells-participate in immune response. Formed in bone marrow. Move to the skin.
4. Merkel cells- participates in the sense of touch. Connected to nerve cells from dermis.

B. Dermis- the innermost thick layer of the skin composed of living cells
-the Dermis lies beneath the Epidermis and contains BLOOD VESSELS, NERVE
ENDINGS,
GLANDS, SENSE ORGANS, SMOOTH MUSCLES, AND HAIR FOLLICLES.

c. Hypodermis or Subcutaneous
-The hypodermis is not part of the skin, and lies below the dermis. Its purpose is to attach
the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves.
It consists of loose connective tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts,
macrophages and adipocytes
- (the hypodermis contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the
body. Another name for the hypodermis is the subcutaneous tissue

Appendages of the Skin:

a. Hair - it covers almost the entire surface of the body. Special hairs include: tactile hairs
around the nose and lips, eyelashes, vibrissae in the nostril and tragic in the ears.
Hair structure
-Hair consists of the shaft, which grows and rises above the skin surface.

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The hair has two part namely:

 Hair Follicle -is the point from which the hair grows. It is a tiny cup-shaped pit buried in the
fat of the scalp.
 Hair Shaft- the part of the hair seen above the skin. The hair shaft is made up of dead cells
that have turned into keratin and binding material, together with small amounts of water.
This structure explains why we do not feel any pain while our hair is being cut.

b. Horns and Antlers

True horns are made of keratin and are found in sheep, goats and cattle. They are
never branched and, once grown, are never shed. They consist of a core of bone arising in the
dermis of the skin and are fused with the skull. The horn itself forms as a hollow cone-shaped
sheath around the bone

The antlers of male deer have quite a different structure. They are not formed in the
epidermis and do not consist of keratin but are entirely of bone. They are shed each year and
are often branched, especially in older animals. When growing they are covered in skin called
velvet that forms the bone. Later the velvet is shed to leave the bony antler. The velvet is often
removed artificially to be sold in Asia as a traditional medicine.

c. Hoof or Claw - Hoofs are found in sheep, cows, horses etc. otherwise known as ungulate
mammals. These are animals that have lost toes in the process of evolution and walk on the
“nails” of the remaining toes. The hoof is a cylinder of horny material that surrounds and
protects the tip of the toe.

Nails act as protective plates over the fingertips and toes.

•The area under your nail has many nerve endings, which allow you to receive more information
about objects you touch
•As the nail grows, more cells are added at the nail bed. Older cells get pushed away from the
nail bed and the nail grows longer. There are no nerve endings in the nail, which is a good thing,
otherwise cutting your nails would hurt a lot.

Nail Structure
The structure we know of as the nail is divided into six specific parts - the root, nail bed,
nail plate, eponychium (cuticle), perionychium, and hyponychium.

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Root The root of the fingernail is also known as the germinal matrix. This portion of the
nail is actually beneath the skin behind the fingernail and extends several millimeters into the

finger. The fingernail root produces most of the volume of the nail and the nail bed. This portion
of the nail does not have any melanocytes, or melanin producing cells.
Nail Bed It extends from the edge of the germinal matrix, or lunula, to the hyponychium.
The nail bed contains the blood vessels, nerves, and melanocytes, or melanin-producing cells.
Nail Plate The nail plate is the actual fingernail, made of translucent keratin. The pink
appearance of the nail comes from the blood vessels underneath the nail.
Eponychium The cuticle of the fingernail is also called the eponychium. The cuticle is
situated between the skin of the finger and the nail plate fusing these structures together and
providing a waterproof barrier.
Perionychium is the skin that overlies the nail plate on its sides. It is also
known as the paronychial edge. The perionychium is the site of hangnails, ingrown nails, and
an infection of the skin called paronychia.
Hyponychium- is the area between the nail plate and the fingertip. It is the junction
between the free edge of the nail and the skin of the fingertip, also providing a waterproof
barrier.

d. Chestnut - a horny mass found in the medial aspect of the forearm about halfway between
the carpus and the elbow, on the media; aspect of the hind leg just below the hock of the
horse.
e. Ergot – a horny mass found in all four legs, embedded in the hair on the posterior aspect of
the fetlock joint.
f. Beak – Projecting mouthpart of the chicken consisting of the upper and lower beak
g. Bill- Projecting mouthpart of water fowl consisting of the upper and lower bill
h. Muzzle – Projecting part of the animal head including the mouth, jaw and nostril. It is seen
among cattle, carabaos, goat and sheep.
i. Snout – projecting mouthpart of a swine.
j. Wattle – fleshy lobe appendage hanging down from the throat or chin.
k. Wool – Coat covering of the sheep.
l. Feather – Body covering of poultry Species.
Five types of feathers:

1. Contour feathers- are large feathers that cover the body, wings and tail.
They have an expanded vane that provides the smooth, continuous surface
that is required for effective flight.

2. Down feather- down feathers are the only feathers

covering a chick and form the main insulation layer under the
contour feathers of the adult. They have no shaft but consist
of a spray of simple, slender branches

3. Pin or Filoplumes Feather - have a slender hair-like shaft often with

a tiny tuft of barbs on the end. They are found between the other feathers
and help tell a bird how its feathers are lying.

4. Plumules- are found beneath the contour feathers where they form a soft,
downy undercoat. They have a short shaft with radiating, free barbs and
barbules. They have no interlocking hooklets or barbicels. These feathers
provide the depth to the coat and play a large part in trapping the air and
holding it still – thus improving their ability to conserve warmth.

5. Bristles- are found around the mouth and eyes of chickens and are thought to be primarily
used to aid the sensory ability of birds and protect sensitive areas. A comparison between bird
bristles and mammalian eyelashes could be used here.

Glands of the skin:

a. Sweat Glands or Sudoriferous - They develop from the same down growths that give
rise to hair follicles. They secrete watery fluid containing various salts and waste product from
metabolism. They serve as organ of excretion and temperature regulation.
Apocrine Sweat Glands -the secretory product from the gland.

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b. Sebaceous glands or oil glands - found in the skin of mammals and these glands secrete
sebum.
Sebum (Latin, meaning fat or tallow) that is made of fat (lipids) and the debris of dead fat-
producing cells. These glands exist in humans throughout the skin except in the palms of the
hands and soles of the feet.
-acts to protect and waterproof hair and skin, and keep them from becoming dry, brittle,
and cracked. It can also inhibit the growth of microorganisms on skin.

c. Ceruminous glands- are involved in skin problems such as acne and keratosis pilaris. A
blocked sebaceous gland can result in a sebaceous cyst.
Earwax, also known by the medical term cerumen, is a
yellowish, waxy substance secreted in the ear canal of humans
and many other mammals. It plays a vital role in the human ear
canal, assisting in cleaning and lubrication, and also provides
some protection from bacteria, fungus, and insects

B. INTERNAL PARTS

1. SKELETAL SYSTEM - refers to the framework of bones, cartilage and ligaments which
supports the body and provides levers for muscular activity. The skeleton of the mammals is
subdivided into the axial, appendicular and heterotropic skeleton.
Functions of Bones:
a. provides protection of vital organs
b. gives rigidity and form to the body
c. act as levers
d. storage of minerals
e. provide site for blood formation

Classification of bones according to gross appearance:

1. Long bone- consists of a relatively cylindrical shaft and two extremities; their functions are to
act as levers and aid in support, locomotion and prehension.
example: humerus, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula
2. Short bone- somewhat cuboid or approximately equal in all dimensions. There is no marrow
cavity and it acts as absorbing concussion.
example: carpus and tarsus
3. Flat bone-relatively thin and expanded in two dimensions and it function as protection of vital
organs and in muscle attachment.
example: scapula and pelvic bone

4. Sesamoid bone- resemble a sesame seed and are developed along the course of tendons
to reduce friction or change the course of tendons.
example: patella
5. Irregular bones- unpaired bones located on the median plane and the serve for protection,
support and muscle attachment.
example: vertebrae

Divisions of the body skeleton:

a. Appendicular skeleton-consists of bones of the limbs
1)Forelimb (Shoulder- scapula, Arm- humerus, Forearm- radius and ulna,
Wrist (knee)-Carpals, Manus (forefoot)- metacarpals and phalanges)

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2)Hind limb (Hip- (composed of ilium, ischium and pubis), Thigh- femur,
Kneecap- patella, Leg/shank- tibia and fibula, Ankle (hock) tarsals,
Pes (hindfoot) metatarsals and Phalanges)

b. Axial Skeleton—These bones are on or close to the midline axis of the body and include:
1) Skull
2)Vertebrae
 Cervical (neck), Thoracic (chest), Lumbar (waist), Sacral (rump), and
Caudal/coccygeal (tail)
3)Ribs

c. Visceral Skeleton- consists of such bones as maybe developed in the soft tissue of certain
organs or parts.
1) os rostri (snout of pig)
2) os cordis (heart of cattle and sheep)
3) os penis (penis of dog)

The Vertebral Column- is made up of median series of irregular bones that are named
according to the regions that they occupy in the body. Between regions and species, these
bones present variation and number.
Animal Vertebral formula
Horse C7 T18 L6 S3 Cd 15-21
Ox C7 T13 L6 S3 Cd18-20
Sheep C7 T13 L6-7 S4 Cd 16-18
Goat C7 T13 L6-7 S4 Cd12
Pig C7 T14-15 L6-7 S4 Cd 20-23

The Skull- is divided into cranial and facial bones. The cranial bones consist of the occipital,
interparietal, sphenoid, pterygoid, temporal, parietal, frontal, ethmoid, and vomer. The facial
bones include the nasal, conchae, maxilla, lacrimal, incisive, palatine, zygomatic, mandible and
hyoid bones.
Os Rostri-present in pigs which is the bone on their snout, it is situated between the
nostrils and short and 3 sided surface is convex and is notched at each end. Anterior surface is
surrounded by an irregular bone.
Os Cordis- a bone in the heart of cattle and sheep that helps support the valve of the
heart.

The Thorax- is comprised by the thoracic vertebrae dorsally, the ribs and costal cartilages
laterally, and the sternum ventrally. The shape of the thorax differs among the domesticated
mammals under study and between male and female animals.
Animal Number of sternebra
Horse 7 sternebrae
Ox 7 sternebrae
Sheep 7 sternebrae
Goat 7 sternebrae
Pig 6 sternebrae

Number of sterna and asternal vertebrae

Animal Number of sterna ribs Number of asternal ribs
Horse 8 pairs 10 pairs
Ox 8 pairs 5 pairs
Sheep 8 pairs 5 pairs
Goat 8 pairs 5 pairs
Pig 7 pairs 7 pairs

The Thoracic Limb

The shoulder girdle, when fully developed, consists of three bones namely, the scapula,
coracoids and the clavicle. The domesticated mammals under study present the developed
scapula. The coracoid is seen as a rudiment on the scapula while the clavicle is absent.
The arm is supported by the humerus. There are two bones of the forearm, the radius
and ulna. The manus is comprised by the carpus, metacarpus and digits.
The carpus contains a group of short bones arranged in two transverse rows. The
bones of the proximal row, named from medial to lateral side are the radial, intermediate ulnar,
accessory carpal bones. The bones of the distal row are designated numerically in the same
direction as the first; second, third, fourth carpal bones. The metacarpus typically contains five

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metacarpal bones, one for each digit. The digits are formed by the phalanges, typically three in
number per digit.

Number of metacarpal bones in the following animals

Animal Number of Metacarpal bones
Horse 3
Ox 2
Sheep 2
Goat 2
Pig 4

Number of carpal bones in the following animals

Animal Row Number of Medial-lateral
carpal bones
Horse Proximal 4 Radial:Intermediate:Ulnar:Accessory
Distal 4 First:Second:third:Fourth
Ox Proximal 4 Radial:Intermediate:Ulnar:Accessory
Distal 2 Third and 4th (fused)
Goat Proximal 4 Radial: Intermediate:Ulnar: Accessory
Distal 2 2nd and 3rd (fused):4th
Pig Proximal 4 Radial:Intermediate:Ulnar:Accessory
Distal 4 First:Second:third:Fourth

Give the number of sesamoid bones in these animals

Animal Proximal sesamoids Distal sesamoids
Horse 2 1
Ox 4 2
Pig 8 4
Sheep 4 2
Goat 4 2

Bones of the Pelvic Limb

The pelvic girdle consists of the os coxae (hip bone, innominate bone). This is the
largest of the flat bones of the body and it consists of three parts, namely:ilium, ischium and
pubis, the three bodies of which meet to form the acetabulum.
The skeleton of the thigh is composed of the femur. The leg is comprised by the two
bones and these are tibia and fibula.The pes is comprised by the tarsus, metatarsus and digits.
The tarsus is formed by the tarsal bones. The metatarsus is composed of metatarsal bones.
The digits are comprised by the phalanges.

Number of tarsal bones in animals

Animal Number of tarsal bones
Horse 6
Ox 5
Sheep 5
Goat 5
Pig 7

Number of digits and phalanges present in animals

Digit I Digit II Digit III Digit IV Digit V
Horse 3
Ox 3 3 1
Sheep 3 3
Goat 3 3
Pig 4 4 4 4

2. MUSCULAR SYSTEM- is the most prominent and extensive anatomical feature of the body.
It is specialized for contractility. All muscle tissues have the ability to contract or shorten their
normal length.

Functions of the muscle:

a. pumping of the blood around the body
b. movement of extremities
c. for respiration
d. movement of nutrient material along the gastrointestinal tract

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e. transport of urine to the urinary bladder from the kidneys and emptying of the bladder

Three major group of muscles:

a. Striated (skeletal or striped) muscle
a.1 long, unbranched, multinucleated fibers
a.2. under the microscope each muscle is crossed transversely by dark bands or “striations”
a.3. attached by tendons at one or both ends to some part of the skeleton
a.4 it is voluntary or under direct control of the will
a.5. capable of sudden and violent contraction
a.6.example of these muscles are the muscle of limbs and trunk

b. Smooth (unstriped or visceral) muscle

b.1.smooth in structure, no cross striations
b.2. it is not attached to the skeleton, and is not under the control of the will
b.3. under the microscope, the muscle fiber appear to be spindle-shaped with centrally
located nucleus
b.4. found in the muscular layer of the stomach and intestines; in the urogenital system,
walls of the blood vessels and smooth muscle fibers around the alveoli and alveolar duct
of the lungs

c. Cardiac (striated involuntary and heart) muscle

c.1. found in the heart
c.2. cross striations of striped muscle

3. NERVOUS SYSTEM- is the most highly organized system of the body. It is concerned with
the reception of stimuli, transmission of impulses, interpretation of sensations and the
integration of sensations that arise from both the internal and the external environment. The
information received must be organized and stored as well as used in the initiation of activity in
effectors.
-The nervous system is responsible for all the complicated processes that make up the
animal’s adjustment to both the external and the internal environment. It acts as a control
system.

Basic unit of the nervous system:

a. Neuron (nerve cell) is the anatomic and physiologic unit of the nervous system. It consists
of the cell body and all its processes, the dendrites and axon.
b. Dendrite is a nerve cell process that conducts impulses toward the cell body, and;
c. Axon conducts impulses away from the cell body. The axon (and its myelin covering if
present) is called a nerve fiber.

The continuity from one neuron to the next is provided by the synapse. It is the point of contact
between the neurons.

Divisions of the nervous system

a. Central Nervous system- composed of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is enclosed
in the skull while the spinal cord is enclosed in the vertebral canal. The brain is subdivided into
three parts. The forebrain is the largest part and fills most of the cranial cavity. The midbrain
extends caudally from the forebrain. The hindbrain is beyond the midbrain. The spinal cord is
the direct continuation of the brain into the vertebral canal.

b. Somatic nervous system- is part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) associated with
the voluntary control of the body movements through the action of skeletal muscles. This
system includes all neurons connected with skeletal muscles, skin and sense organs. It is
composed of the spinal nerves and cranial nerves.

Spinal nerves are those that arise from the spinal cord and emerge from the vertebrae
(transmit nerve impulses to) muscles and organs throughout the body.
Cranial nerves supply innervations to structures in the head and neck. Cranial nerves carry
information from general sensory resceptors in the body, mostly from the head region and this
information is processed in the CNS; the resulting orders travel back through the cranial nerves
to the skeletal muscles.

c. Automatic (Autonomic) Nervous system-is a portion of the peripheral nervous that works
automatically and without voluntary input. Its parts include receptors within viscera (internal

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organs). The major role of the autonomic nervous system is to maintain a relatively stable
internal body environment or a state of homeokinesis or homeostasis.

4. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM- meet the needs of distant cells for nutrition and excretion.
The system consists of a network of joined vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) for circulating
the nutrient fluid (blood) and a pump (the heart) to propel the fluid through the vessels.

Functions of the cardiovascular system:

 To transport the nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract to the tissues
 To carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the
lungs
 To transport hormones from one part of the body to another
 To help maintain the water equilibrium of the body
 To assist in keeping the normal temperature of the body
 To regulate the hydrogen ion concentration in the body
 To assist in overcoming diseases

a. Heart- is a cone-shaped, hollow, muscular structure located in the thorax. The opposite end
of the cone is known as the Apex. It is contained in a serous sac called the Pericardium.

b. Pulse rate- determines the rate, rhythm, and amplitude of the heart and can be taken using
our ears and fingers or stethoscope or electrocardium (ECG).

The following are the sites for taking the pulse rate in animals:
Horse- submandibular artery (face)
Cattle- facial artery (face) and coccygeal artery (tail)
Pig- femoral artery (thigh) and coccygeal artery (tail)
Goat/sheep- femoral artery
Dog/cat- femoral artery

Some terms associated with the pulse rate:

 Bradycardia- marked slowing of the heart rate
 Tachycardia- increased pulse rate
 Arrythmia- no heart rate

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c. Blood Vessels
 Arteries- are tubular structures that carry blood away from the heart. The walls of
arteries tend to be thick and elastic.
 Veins- are larger in diameter than the arteries and they carry blood towards the heart.

d. Blood Circulation
The blood vascular system is further divided into four circulations:
1.) The cardiac which involves the heart;
2.) The pulmonary, which involves the lungs;
3.) The systemic, which involve the general body area; and the
4.) Portal, which involves the intestines and liver.

e. The blood- is the fluid carried by the arteries and vein. It is somewhat sticky and viscous,
having about five times of viscosity of water and specific gravity about 1/20 greater than
water (1.60) and an average pH of about 7.4. In color, it ranges from the bright red of
oxygenated blood. It is slightly alkaline in reaction and has a distinctive odor and a salty
taste, and makes up from 6 to 10 percent of the total body weight.

Cellular Elements of Blood

1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)- Non-nucleated biconcave disc-shape cells specialized in

the transportation of oxygen. It is composed of water and hemoglobin, an iron containing
pigment which is the principal oxygen transport medium
Abnormalities:
Anemia: red blood cells are reduced in number and or hemoglobin content
Polycythemia: excessive number of RBC are found in the circulating blood

2. White blood cells (leucocytes)- Nucleated cells that is capable of independent movement
Divided into two groups:
a. Granulocytes – those leucocytes that contain granular material within cytoplasm
 neutrophils – this are highly phagocytic and increase and number during acute bacterial
infections
 eosinophils – become numerous during parasitism and allergic reaction
 basophils – similar to mast cell and mediate during allergic reaction

b. Agranulocytes – those leucocytes that contain very little granular material in their cytoplasm
 monocytes – largest leucocytes, involve in phagocytosis and increased in number during
chronic infection
 lymphocytes - involved in immune responses
Abnormalities:
Leucopenia – decrease in the number of red blood cells.
Leucocytosis – increase in the number of white blood cells.

c. Platelets (thrombocytes)- Cells responsible for blood clotting

Abnormalities:
Thrombus – a clot that remained fixed in the lumen of the blood vessel.
Embolus – a clot that floats freely the bloodstream.

Fluid Elements:
a. Plasma is the liquid part of blood and its provides the medium of exchange between the
blood vessels and the cells of the body. The major component of plasma is water which is about
92%.

b. Serum – the fluid that remains after the blood has clotted.

5. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM- includes the lymphoid tissues and the lymphatic vessels distributed
throughout the body. It drains tissue fluid (called lymph within the lymphatic system) and is a
framework for the circulation, production and maturation of immune cells.
Lymphoid tissue consists of accumulations of lymphocytes trap in the spaces between
fiber of reticular connective tissue. Examples of lymphoid organs are lymph, nodes, spleen,
thymus and tonsils.

a. Spleen-Largest lymphoid organ

-Act as blood reservoir
-Act as lymphatic organ

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-Act as blood forming organ in young animals

-Act as graveyard for old red blood cells
-Site for antibody production

b. Thymus- A lympho-epithelial organ that serve as source of lymphocytes

c. Tonsils and Peyer’s patches- they primarily act as regional lymph nodes

Functions of the lymphatic system:

a. Returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream from the extracellular spaces
b. Filters out and phagocytize bacteria and other foreign material
c. Helps maintain homeostasis and tissue health
d. Produces antibody and lymphocytes
e. Absorbs and transports fat from the intestine to the bloodstream

6. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM- is most simply defined as the process by which gas exchange
between a living cell and its environment is affected. Respiratory involves more than the act of
breathing. The circulatory system could not carry oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the
cells unless the respiratory system performs its function of making oxygen available to the blood
relieving it of carbon dioxide.

Major function of the respiratory system:

a. The delivery of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide.
b. Assistance in temperature control and phonation (voice production).

The respiratory apparatus

The external respiratory system is essentially a series of passages and tubes that
commence at the exterior of the animal and end blindly in a multitude of tiny, thin walled, closed
sacs or alveoli.
The nasal cavity includes the following structure: external nares and nasal hairs, nasal
septum, turbinates, sinuses, olfactory region and the nasal mucous membrane.
The pharynx is funnel-shaped muscolomembranous organ, which is a common
passageway for food and air.
The larynx connects the pharynx and the trachea. It supports epiglottis, which regulate
the passage of air and prevents the aspiration of food or other foreign bodies. It also serves as
the voice box.
The trachea is a non- collapsible tube formed by series of adjacent cartilage rings. It is a
passageway to the duct system of the lungs.
The lungs are two elastic membranous sacs whose interior in in free communication with
the outside air via system of passages.

The scheme of the duct system of the lungs is as follows:

a. Trachea
b. Primary or stem bronchi
c. Secondary bronchi
d. Bronchioles
e. Alveolar sacs
f. Alveolar ducts
g. Alveoli – smallest subdivision of the air passages and the true respiratory structures where
the exchange of gases between the bloodstream and the inspired air takes place

The pleura is serious membrane which covers the inner wall of the thorax and the
thoracic structures.
The diaphragm is a muscolomembranous partition that completely separates the
thoracic from the abdominal cavity. It is muscle for respiration.

Thoracic cavity surrounds the heart and its structures, the lungs and its part of the
trachea and esophagus, mediastinal structures and the great vessels entering and leaving the
heart.

Mechanism of respiration (inspiration/expiration):

a. External expiration includes the movement of air into and out of the lungs (breathing), the
passage of oxygen from the lungs to blood, and the passage of carbon dioxide from blood to the

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lungs, the means by which oxygen is carried to the cells and the means by which carbon dioxide
is carried form the cell back to the lungs.

Breathing is the act of bringing air and blood into intimate relationship within the lungs
and consist of two phases: inspiration and expiration. The inspiration is where air brought into
the lungs and expiration is when air is expelled from the lungs.

b. Internal respiration is concerned in the utilization of oxygen and production of carbon

dioxide by the cells and is often referred to as cellular respiration.

Types of breathing/respiration:
a. Costal (thoracic) – involves considerably movements of the ribs
b. Abdominal (diaphragmatic) – diaphragm contraction produces visible
c. Movement of the abdomen
d. Eupnea – normal quiet respiration
e. Dyspnea – difficult breathing
f. Apnea – absence of cessation of respiration
g. Hyperpnea – increase in depth or rate of breathing or both
h. Polypnea – rapid shallow breathing

7. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM- consists of a muscolomembranous tube extending from the mouth of

the anus. Its functions are ingestion, grinding, digestion and absorption of food and elimination
of solid waste.

Anatomy of digestive system:

a. Mouth – is the beginning of digestive system. This includes the lips, tongue, teeth and
salivary glands. It is responsible for the breakdown of food materials and serves as
prehensile (grasping) mechanism and as a defensive and offensive weapon.
b. Pharynx – is a funnel-shaped muscolomembranous organ which is a common passage for
food and air.
c. Esophagus – is a muscolomembranous tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach.
d. Stomach – is a hollow, pear shaped, muscular digestive organ; the organ of storage of
ingested feed.

Types of stomach:
a. Simple stomach – it is located just behind the left side of the diaphragm. It is divided into
cardia (entrance), fundus (body) and pylorus (termination). It produces the hydrochloric
acid and pepsinogen.

b. Compound stomach – it is composed of four (4) stomach compartments.

Reticulum (honeycomb) – is the most anterior and smallest section of the forestomach. It
receives heavy matter in food and acts as liquid reservoir to soften this material.
Rumen (paunch) – is the largest part of the forestomach stomach. It serves as fermentation
vat, organ of maceration, site of bacterial digestion and organ absorption.
Omasum (manyplies) – is a spherical organ filled with muscular laminae. Laminae are
studded with short, blunt papillae that grind roughage before it enters the abomasum.
Abomasum (true stomach) – secretes gastric enzyme and hydrochloric acid.

c. Small intestine – is a tube connecting to the stomach to the cecum and large intestine. It is
suspended from the dorsal part of the abdominal cavity by a fold of peritoneum called the great
mesentery. Three segment of the small intestine.
 Duodenum – is a fixed part of the small intestine and closely attached to the stomach. It
contains pancreas.
 Jejunum – is about 90% of the total length of the small intestine.
 Ileum – is the last part of the small intestine.

d. Large intestine – extends from the termination of the ileum to the anus.
 Cecum – cul-de-sac situated between the ileum and the great colon. It is somewhat
comma-shaped and lies to the right of the median plane.
 Colon – differs from the small intestine in that it is larger, sacculated and has and has
longitudinal bands and more fixed position

e. Rectum – is the terminal part of the intestine. It is the organ of storage.

f. Anus – is the terminal part of the alimentary system.

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g. Accessory glands
 Pancreas – is a gland found in the first loop of the duodenum. It produces sodium
bicarbonate and digestive enzyme.
 Liver – is the largest gland in the body.

Functions of the liver:

 Storage and formation of glycogen (animal starch).
 Secretion of bile.
 Detoxification of poisons.
 Breakdown of uric acid.
 Formation of urea.
 Desaturation of fatty acids.

 Gall bladder – is a storage place for bile. It is absent in horse, deer, elk, moose, elephant,
giraffe, rhinoceros, camel, tapir, and rat.
 Salivary glands

Anatomy and physiology of the avian digestive system:

a. Beak/Bill– it is adopted for rapid picking up of small particles of feeds.
b. Esophagus – most birds (except insect-eating species) have an enlarge area in esophagus
referred to as crop. It functions:
 To serve as an ingesta holding and moistening of reservoir.
 To allow breakdown reaction of salivary amylase.
 For fermentation.
c. Proventriculus – the site of gastric juice production (hydrochloric acid and pepsin).
d. Gizzard (ventriculus) – thick muscular walled area acting to physically reduce particle size
of ingesta. Gizzard lining normally contains grit (small stone or hard particles) which aid in
grinding ingested seeds and grains.
e. Small intestine – most of the enzymes found in mammalian species are present, the
exception of lactase.
f. Ceca and Large intestine – it contains two blind pouches (ceca) as compared to mammals
(cecum). The ceca and the large intestine are site for water resorption. Fiber digestion and
water soluble vitamins synthesis occur because of the bacterial fermentation.
g. Cloaca/Vent/Anus – eliminates waste products.

8. EXCRETORY SYSTEM-The principal function of the urinary system is the extraction and
removal of waste products from the blood. It consists of two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder
and urethra.

Structure of the Excretory System:

a. Kidney – most domestic animals have somewhat bean-shaped kidneys and located in the
dorsal anterior portion of the abdominal cavity on both sides of the median plane and slightly
posterior to the liver. This is the primary organ for urine formation.
b. Ureters – is a muscular tube that conveys urine from the pelvis of the kidney to the bladder.
c. Urinary bladder – is a hollow muscular organ that varies in size and position with the
amount of urine it contains.

d. Urethra – is a relatively long usually curved common passageway for urine and semen in
male and a short relatively straight and solely urinary function in the female. The nephron is the
unit of structure and function of the kidney.

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Urine Formation
Secretion moves substances out of the blood and into the collecting tubules where they mix
with the water and other wastes and are converted into the urine.
Micturition – the term for the expulsion of urine to the bladder.

9. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Forms of reproduction:
 Asexual reproduction – does not require the sex organs to facilitate the perpetuation of
the species.
 sexual reproduction the union of sex cells, ovum and sperm cell are involved to form a
new individual.

Reproductive System of the Female:

a. Ovaries- the primary sex organs of the female attached by the broad ligament (mesovarium)
to the dorsal wall of the sub-lumbar region of the body cavity.
2 Functions:
 Production of egg cells or ova
 Production of female sex hormones: estrogen and progesterone

b. Oviduct or Fallopian tube- tube (left and right) extending from the ovaries to the uterus. The
portion of the oviduct nearest the ovary is modified into thin, funnel-shaped fimbriated
membrane known as infundibulum, which partially surrounds the ovary. Mesosalpinx, a fold in
the anterior portion of the broad ligament suspends the oviduct. Oviduct reserves the ova during
ovulation and it is the site of fertilization.

c. Uterus-known as the site of implantation for the fertilized egg. This is divided into a body and
two horns. The proportion, shape and arrangement of the parts vary with species. Bicornuate
like swine have horns which are folded and convoluted while the body is short or not prominent.
Bipartite (cattle,sheep,goat and horses) are with prominent uterine body and a septum that
separates the two horns. Uterus receives blood and its nerve supply through the support of the
broad ligament (mesometrium).

d. Cervix- it is considered as the neck of the uterus. Its opening, os uteri close when the animal
gets pregnant to protect the uterine contents. Cervix acts as sperm receptacle in certain
animals. It is also facilitating transport of a viable sperm through the cervical mucus to the
uterus.

e. Vagina- the primary organ of copulation. It serves as the sperm depository area in many
species. Also comprises a part of the birth canal at parturition.

f. Vulva- is the common passage for the products of reproduction and urine. The vulva is
comparable to the cloaca of the birds. It is also homologous to the scrotum of the male, since
both are derived from the same embryonic structure (vestibular folds).

g. Clitoris- small rudimentary organ homologous to the glans penis of the male.

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Reproductive System of the Male:

a. Testes- this is the primary organ of the male. In birds, the two testes are located within the
body cavity. In livestock, testes are located outside the body cavity within the scrotum.

b. Scrotum- is a cutaneous sac that serves as the external covering of the testes. Protects the
testes from direct mechanical injuries and provides an environment which is cooler (6-9C) than
the body temperature required for normal sperm production. The cremaster and tunica dartos
are the thermoregulatory muscles of the testes.

2 Functions of Testes:
 Production of sperm cells;
 Production of sex hormone-testosterone. Testosterone is responsible for the development
of male secondary characteristics such as muscular development aggressiveness and libido.

Seminiferous tubules are found inside the testes and responsible for the production of
spermatozoa. Leydig cells are embedded between the seminferous tubules of the testes that
produce testosterone.

Descent of the Testes

At the fetal stage, the initial development of the testes starts inside the body cavity. As
fetus grows, testes start to descend to the scrotum through the inguinal canal. Descent is
completed at birth or soon after birth.

Bilateral cryptorchid- when both testes failed to descend to the scrotal sac (sterile)
Unilateral cryptorchid- when only one of the testes failed to descend, but capable of
fertilization.

c. The duct system:

 Epididymis- the seminiferous tubules join together to form the rete testis and come out of
the testis as vas efferens. The vas efferens converged to form the head, then the body and
tail of the epididymis. Epididymis is a convoluted tube that serves as site of sperm
maturation.

 Vas deferens- found at the end of the tail of epididymis which is straightened and enlarges
to form the ampulla. Vas deferens carries sperm from epididymis to the urethra. Ampulla
joins with the urethra.

 Urethra- where spermatozoa and accessory fluids are mixed.It has a loop called sigmoid
flexure (bull, boar, ram and buck).

 Penis- male organ of copulation. It is divided into three general areas: the glans, the body
and the roots which are attached to the arch of pelvis.

Male Accessory Glands:

a. Seminal vesicles- paired, hollow and pear shaped in stallion, lobulated in bull, ram and
boars, absent in dogs. Secretions include ascorbic acid, citric acid, acid soluble phosphorus,
seminal fructose and ergothionene. Secretions neutralize urine residues.

b. Prostate gland-unpaired, more or less completely surrounds the pelvic urethra. In adult it
may become enlarged and interfere with urination. It produces alkaline secretion which gives
characteristic odor of semen. Secretes substances to nourish and stimulate activity of the
sperm. Example of secretion: antagluttin minerals.

c. Cowper’s gland or bulbo-urethral gland-small paired glands located on either side of the
pelvic urethra. Found in all domestic animals except in dogs and are extremely large in boars.
Secretions add volume to ejaculate. Sialoprotein is a secretion responsible for the formation of
gelatinous fraction of semen (sometimes called tapioca). In boar, gel blocks the cervix to
prevent back flow of the semen during copulation.

Semen- consists of the sperm cells plus the secretions of the accessory glands. In
vasectomized animal, the vas deferens is severed, thus the semen consists only of the
secretions of accessory glands (sterile male without losing libido). Castrated animal, when both
testes removed, render the male sterile with loss of libido.

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A normal spermatozoon consists of head, neck or mid-piece and tail. Shape varies with
species from flattened ovoid in bull, ram, boar and rabbit and rounded in man.

Age of animal when sperm is produced:

Boar-117 days
Bull- 224 days
Buck-110 days
Ram-147 days

The life span of ejaculated spermatozoa in the female reproductive tract is about 24 hours
(20-30 hours) in most mammals and about 14 days in chicken. Few thousand from the so many
millions of spermatozoa will reach the oviduct and only one sperm cell enters the ovum and
accomplishes fertilization.

Puberty and Estrus Cycle

The production of ova starts early in the prenatal period. When ovum is formed, it is
enclosed in a structure called ovarian follicle or graafian follicle (GF) consisting of:
1)Epithelial cells around the ovum
2) folliculi (theca internal and externa); and the antrum which is filled with brown or yellowish,
alkaline, albuminous fluid.

The female reproductive tract starts to function at age of puberty. Puberty indicates that
the female has reached sexual maturity-varies between breeds and among females of the same
breed.
At puberty, Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) secreted from the anterior pituitary
gland causes growth and development of the GF in the ovary. The developing follicle secretes
estrogen which causes estrus in female. Estrogen stimulates the production of Luteinizing
Hormone (LH). At the peak of estrogen production, LH production increases which coincides
with the production of inhibin from the ovary which inhibits production of FSH.
Luteinizing hormone is the hormone that causes ovulation of matured follicle at the
ovarian surface. It also initiates the formation of a yellow body (filled with lutein cells) called
corpus luteum (CL) at the site of ovulation. The CL secretes progesterone (as long as the CL
is secreting progesterone, estrus is inhibited). Progesterone is responsible for (1) preparation of
the endometrium of the uterus for implantation of the fertilized egg (2) maintain normal
pregnancy until birth.
If there is no pregnancy, CL will regress to form corpus albicans, while the uterus
secretes prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF2a) which could destroy the CL.

Animals may be classified based on the occurrence of estrus cycle:

Monoestrus- if animal comes in heat only once a year (example: deer and fox)
Polyestrus- if animal comes in heat all throughout the year (example: swine, cattle)

a. Phases of Estrus cycle:

 Proestrus- characterized by follicle growth and thickened uterine mucosa which become
congested with blood.
 Estrus- under the influence of estrogen wherein the female accepts the male for mating
(standing heat). Ovulation takes place during this phase.
 Metesrus- characterized by the formation of CL develop in the ruptured follicle and the
uterine mucosa are prepared to receive fertilized egg. CL will produce progesterone. If
fertilization occurs, metestrus is followed by the period of pregnancy (conception). If not
dietsrus will follow.
 Diestrus- when corpus luteum cease to function, the uterus goes into a period of quiescence
(resting stage) in order that a new cycle can begin.

b. Signs of Estrus:
 reddening and swelling of the vulva
 frequent urination
 restless ness
 mucus secretion from the vagina that can be seen in the vulva (watery at first and towards
end or estrus becomes sticky)
 mounting other animals
 stands still when mounted by a male

Silent heaters can be detected by breeding male through the smell of pheromones, a
hormone like substance secreted by the female.

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Terms related to estrus:

Anestrus- absence of estrus in an animal.
Nymphomania-animals with estrogen primed ovary and always in heat (may be due to cystic
ovary).

Fertilization and Pregnancy

During mating, the sperm cells deposited in the vagina most farm animals reside in the
female reproductive tract before becoming capable of attaching to and penetrating the ovum.
This process is known as sperm capacitation and believed to start in the uterus. Final
capacitation occurs in the oviduct or fallopian tube.

a. Fertilization takes place in the upper part of the fallopian tube. The following are the stages
involved:
1. sperm migration from the site of deposition to the oviduct and convergence of the
spermatozoa
towards the ovum.
2. sperm attachment and penetration through the zona pellucida
3. fusion of the sperm and ovum nuclei

The transport of the sperm from the place where they are deposited in the female genital
organ to the fallopian tube takes only a short time (2-15 minutes) aided by the rhythmic
contractions of the vagina, cervix and uterus.
The viability of the sperm in the female reproductive tract of the cows, ewes and sow is
about 24 hours (in mares, 2-3 days). The fertilized egg is called a zygote and undergoes its first
division within 24 hours and repeated cells divisions occur.

b. Pregnancy. When the zygote travels from the oviduct to the horn of the uterus, cleavage
continue to progress. Cleavage divisions give rise to an embryo that has developed into the 8-to
16-cell stage, (morula) which is transported into the uterus where it will continue to proliferate.

Stages in pregnancy:
 Nidation or implantation-trophoblastic cells of the blastocyst attach themselves
between the epithelial cells of the uterus.
In the maternal recognition of pregnancy, implantation allows the conceptus and uterine
endometrium to achieve intimate contact for nutrient exchange and endocrine communication.
At appropriate time, the conceptus produces steroid hormones and/or protein to signal its
presence to the maternal system necessary to maintain the corpus luteum for continuous
production of progesterone.

 Embryonic period- extends from the time of attachment of the fertilized egg to the wall
of the uterus until the form of new individual is laid down. During this period three extra
embryonic membranes are developed.
 Fetal period- period which extends from the end of the embryonic period to the time of
birth.

c. Placental development

The three extraembryonic membranes:

 Allantois- formed as an outpouching of the hindgut of the digestive tract. Fuses with
chorion to form the allantoic cavity that serve as urinary receptacle for the embryo and also
collects some solid waste. The allantois which fuses with the chorion becomes the fetal
placenta. Placenta is an apposition or fusion of the fetal membranes to the endometrium of the
uterus to permit physiological exchange between the fetus and mother.
 Chorion-outer layer which is in contact with the maternal tissues. Completely surrounds
the embryo, amnion and allantoic cavity.
 Amnion- innermost membrane which surrounds the embryo. It encloses the embryo in a
double layered sac that forms the water bag (amnion). This is filled with a clear watery fluid in
which the embryo is suspended. The water bag provides a protective cushion against external
shocks and pressure of the adjacent body organs and prevents adhesion between the surface
of the embryo and the surrounding membranes. At parturition, the amnion acts as wedge to
dilate the cervix.

Two General Types of Placentation among Farm Animals:

 Diffuse placenta- consists of a simple apposition of fetal and maternal epithelia. Sow
and mare have diffuse placenta.

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 Cotyledonary placenta-cotyledons from the fetal placenta are attached to the caruncles
of the maternal placenta through which the uterine blood flows. A caruncle with attached
cotyledon is called placentome. Sheep, goat, cattle and carabao have cotyledonary placenta.
At parturition, the chorionic villi of both types of placentation are merely withdrawn and
there is no extensive destruction of the uterine tissue.

Parturition- is a physiological process by which the pregnant uterus delivers the fetus and
placenta from the maternal organism.

Signs of Approaching Parturition:

 enlargement of the vulva
 obvious enlargement of the mammary gland, teats become swollen
 presence of milk is a strong indication of approaching parturition

Parturition may be divided into three stages:

a. Dilation of the cervix-with uterine contractions which are painful causing restlessness and
abdominal discomfort, fetus progresses to the cervix.
b. Expulsion of the fetus- fetus enclosed in amnion is propelled through the birth canal and
appears at the vulva, amnion ruptures. Emergence of head, forelegs and chest. The umbilical
cord breaks as the neonatal of the dam moves.
c. Expulsion of the placenta-rhythmic contractions continue after birth and cause the
expulsion of the placenta.

Male Fowl Reproductive System

The two testicles in bird are located inside the abdominal cavity, along the backbone and
near the front end of the kidneys. The body temperature of the fowl (about 104F) does not
inhibit spermatogenesis as it does in most mammals.
In the bird, production and maturation of large numbers of spermatozoa occur rapidly
within the seminiferous tubules. The quite small epididymis on the side of each testicle provides
limited storage. Thus, the vas deferens which lead from the testicles to the cloaca are the main
storage site of sperm cells.
There are no accessory glands in the bird. As sperm cells leave the testicle, they are
carried by seminal fluid produced by the testicle. Also, transparent fluid is ejaculated with the
sperm derived from the cloacal wall. Pappilae or small projections in the cloacal wall serve as
the copulatory organ.

Caponization is a process of removing the testicles by making an incision on one side of

the back of the cock (capon).

Female Reproductive System

During embryonic development, both left and right ovaries and their respective oviducts
are present in mammals. In birds, the right side atrophies, leaving the left ovary and its oviduct
to function in the production of the ovum within the yolk.
The eggs produced by birds are much larger than ova produced by most of the mammals.
Avian embryo develops inside the egg and receives nourishment for embryonic development
until hatch.

Egg Formation:
a. Ovary- forms the ovum (yolk). When fully formed ovulation will occur (stimulated by
luteinizing hormone). The yolk moves into the duct system of the female reproductive
system.
b. Oviduct- (duct system) consist of the following:
 Infundibulum or funnel- picks up ovum or yolk from the ovary. Should the hen have been
inseminated (natural or artificial) fertilization likely to occur in the infundibulum.
 Magnum- secretes albumen, a high protein and viscous (thick white) secreted from
magnum glands deposited around the yolk.
 Isthmus- the developing egg moves through the isthmus, where thin membranes are
secreted to surround and contain the albumen (shell membranes).
c. Uterus-known as the “shell gland”. In this portion, protein, calcium and other materials
including pigments are secreted to form the shell. Egg shell is comprised of largely
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) but the very thin outer layer called the cuticle is largely
protein.
d. Vagina- inverts to expel the egg from uterus. Stimulated by oxytocin causes vigorous

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contraction of the uterus moves the egg through the vagina and cloaca depositing the
egg externally of the bird.
e. Cloaca- there is no cervix in female fowl but there is sphincter between the uterus and
vagina, and vagina opens directly into the cloaca which serves as common passage of
egg and feces. The smaller pointed end of the egg is generally the leading end during
egg formation process, but before the egg is laid, it is usually rotated 180 degrees in a
lateral manner.

10. ANATOMY OF THE MAMMARY GLAND

Exterior of the Udder:

Udder- skin gland not connected with abdominal cavity except through the inguinal canal.
Udder contains large amount of secretory tissues and small amount of connective tissue.
Supporting system- median and lateral suspensory ligament, fibrous elastic connective tissue
Duct and secretory system-teat, teat cistern, sphincter muscles, gland cistern, secretory
tissue
Alveolus- tiny structure resembling a balloon, lined with simple layer of epithelial cells (active in
milk secretion). The tissue covering the surface of the alveoli has been identified as
myoepithelium, a contractive tissue which forces milk from the gland after a sustainable
stimulus. The number of alveoli is highly correlated with the production capacity.

Physiological Mechanism of Lactation

The mammary glands are the distinguishing characteristics of all mammals. Classified as
exocrine glands, these modified skin glands secrete milk for the nourishment of the
young.These glands grow during pregnancy and start to secrete milk after parturition.
Lactation is the production of milk by the mammary gland in mammals like cattle, sheep,
swine, horse, goats, buffaloes and rabbits. Young mammals at first feed solely on milk from their
mothers. The milk produced for human consumption usually comes from cow and goat,
including buffalo/carabao.

Development of Mammary Gland

 At birth, a female mammal has a mammary gland with the characteristics number of teats: 2
for sheep, horse, donkeys,4 for cattle,10-18 for swine.
 Development of udder is not remarkable until puberty (sexual maturity.). At puberty, estrogen
stimulates the udder to develop a duct system. Progesterone stimulates alveolar
development at the end of duct development.
 At estrus, development of udder progresses when estrogen level is high and regresses when
low.

At pregnancy, further development of udder continues due to estrogen-progesterone

secreted from placenta. Hormones from pituitary gland (lactogen or prolactin and growth
hormone or somatotrophin) are necessary from proper udder development and milk secretion.

Secretion of Milk
 Milk is made and secreted by the single layer of cells in the alveoli.
 Precursor for milk is the plasma from the blood. Large blood vessels can be seen in the
udder.

Milk Let-down
 Most animals do not “let the milk down” until they are stimulated; young nudges or applies
pressure to the udder and teat.
 Nervous impulse causing the posterior pituitary to release oxytocin causing contraction of
smooth muscle of the udder.
 Contraction forces the milk into the teat and gland
 Dairy cows respond to being milked by a person or machine
 Injection of oxytocin can be given to effect milk letdown

Factors Affecting the Level of Milk Production:

a. Genetics
 fat is most variable
 minerals and lactose-least variable
b. Nutrition
Ration that increase milk production usually reduces fat percentage.
c. Stage of Lactation and Persistency
Colostrum- secretion produced by udder after parturition (3-5 days); rich in gamma globulin
(antibodies); rich in calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and chlorine, iron, vitamins A and D.

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d. Milk Secretion Rate

Milk ejection rate is maximal immediately after milking and lowest just before and during
Milking

e. Environment
 High temperature will decrease appetite of cow resulting in reduced milk yield
 Heat stress affects high-producing cows more than lows producers
f. Diseases and drugs
 Diseases like mastitis, ketosis, milk fever and digestive upsets affect milk production and
milk composition
 Pesticides are also excreted into the milk (discarded) aside from antibiotic residues.

11. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hormones- are groups of chemical substance with very diverse structure. They are
produced by the glands in the body and travel through the blood stream (ductless) to affect
distant target organs that contain specific receptors on which the particular hormones act.
Some hormones are proteins or polypeptides (oxytocin, TSH, insulin). Others, neither
proteins nor polypeptides, are derivatives of amino acids (thyroxine, epinephrine). Others
(steroids) are produced in lipid as derivatives of cholesterol.

Hormone-producing glands:
a. Pituitary gland
 Anterior lobe-growth hormone, gonadotrophic hormones (acting on the gonads/sex
organs) like Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Thyroid
stimulating hormone(TSH) and Adrenocorticotropic Hormone(ACTH).
 Posterior lobe- oxytocin, vasopressin
 Intermediate lobe- melanophore hormones

b. Thyroid gland- thyroxine, calcitonin

c. Parathyroid-parathormone
d. Adrenal glands- cortisol, adrenaline
e. Pancreas- insulin (Islets of Langerhans), glucagon
f. Testicles-testosterone
g. Ovaries- estrogen
h. Corpus luteum-progesterone (placenta), estrogen, relaxin

Specific Hormones:
Hormone Origin Functions
Growth Hormone Anterior pituitary Promotes growth ,gluconeogenesis,
(Somatotrophin) gland lipolysis, protein synthesis
Prolactin Anterior pituitary Stimulates mammary development and
gland lactose synthesis in pregnancy
Adrenocorticotropic Anterior pituitary Stimulates cortisol secretion in adrenal
hormone(ACTH) gland cortex
Luteinizing hormone (LH) Anterior pituitary In males, LH stimulates testosterone
and Follicle Stimulating gland synthesis in the testis, whereas FSH
Hormone (FSH) stimulates spermatogenesis. In females,
FSH is necessary for maturation of ovarian
follicle and LH for ovulation and induces
subsequent development of the corpus
luteum of the ovary.
Thyroid Stimulating Anterior pituitary Controls production of thyroid hormone
hormone(TSH)
Melanocyte Stimulating Middle lobe of Promotes melanin pigmentation of the skin
hormone pituitary
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH Hypothalamus Acts on the kidney to promote reabsorption
or Vasopressin) (stored in posterior of water back into the circulation
pituitary)
Oxytocin Hypothalamus Stimulates release of milk in lactating
(stored in posterior animals; stimulates uterine contraction
pituitary gland)
Thyroxine Thyroid gland Increases body metabolic rate
Calcitonin Thyroid gland Decreases plasma calcium.Acts on bone
by decreasing the activity of osteoclasts
(cells that breakdown bone). Its net effect is

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opposite to that of parathyroid hormone.

Parathormone Parathyroid glands Maintains level of calcium in the blood,
acting mainly on bone and kidney
Epinephrine Adrenal medulla Epinephrine stimulates glycogen
breakdown, lipid breakdown and
gluconeogenesis (the opposite of insulin).
Norepinephrine, though, is the predominant
neurotransmitter in postganglionic axons of
the autonomic nervous system, where it
mediates sympathetic, and particular
catabolic (energy-expending flight-or fight)
responses
Glucocorticoids (cortisol Adrenal cortex Promote gluconeogenesis and protein fat
most being important) breakdown; anti-inflammatory
Mineralocorticoids Adrenal cortex Stimulates kidney reabsorption of sodium
(aldosterone being most back into the circulation with loss
important) potassium
Insulin Pancreas Clears the blood glucose, stimulates
glycolysis and glycogen synthesis,
promotes protein and fat synthesis; inhibits
gluconeogenesis; facilitates uptake of
glucose by cells
Glucagon Pancreas Stimulates glycogen breakdown and
gluconeogenesis in the liver
Estrogen (Estradiol being Ovary Necessary for development of secondary
important) female characteristics; needed for
proliferation of the uterine endometrium
during early phase of the estrus cycle
Progesterone Corpus luteum of Prepares the endometrium to receive the
the ovary fertilized egg during the post ovulatory
phase of the estrous cycle
Testosterone Testes Development of male genitalia, male
secondary sex characteristics,
spermatogenesis, and libido. Androgens
also promote skeletal and muscular
development
Human Chorionic Chorion and Prevents corpus luteum from shrinking kin
Gonadotrophin (HCG) Placenta pregnancy, allowing a rise of estrogen and
progesterone

12.BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Homeotherms vs. Poikilotherms- animals are grouped according to their reaction to the
environment:
Homeotherms-animals exhibiting constant body temperature irrespective of the environmental
changes; also known as warm-blooded animals.
Cold blooded or poikilotherms-animals that show changes in temperature following that of the
environment.
Hibernation is a protective mechanism against profound cooling. This is observed in mammoth,
ground hog, hamster and hedgehog.

Heat production
a. Heat is produced in the metabolic or chemical processes taking place in the protoplasm of
the animal body.

b. Most of the heat is produced in the skeletal muscles and in the glands:
 Muscles produce 70% of the body heat
 Liver is a gland where most heat is generated
 Highest temperature found in the hepatic veil
 Rectal temperature is the far index of internal temperature of animals

c. Sudden lowering of temperature causes the body to shiver, thereby producing heat

d. Adrenaline and thyroxin cause heat production; also the body gains
 when hot food or hot water is swallowed
 by conduction, when the animal lies on the ground

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 by radiation, when heat is gained from the sun’s rays

e. heat loss or heat dissipation

Heat is dissipated through:
 Radiation, conduction and convection-70% of heat is lost by these means
 radiation- 60% of the heat is eliminated from the body.
 More heat is lost if the surrounding temperature is lower than that of the body.
 If the temperature and humidity are high, less heat loss can be expected

f. vaporization of water on the skin (sweat) or insensible perspiration:

 Water is vaporized as fast as it comes out of the skin
 Insensible perspiration is important in cattle, sheep and rabbit
 Horses sweat
 Swine sweat at the snout
 External temperature which causes blood distribution and dilution of blood-favors heat loss
 Erection of hairs ruffling of feathers favors conservation of heat as still moist air is trapped.

g. Vaporization of water in the lungs and respiratory passages:

 smoke emitted by animals in cooler temperature of mountainous region
 Loss due to heating of inspired air is small
 carabao pants
 Dog vaporizes large amount of water from the respiratory passages
 Sheep developed heat polypnea (shallow breathing)
 25% of the heat of the body of mammals is lost in this way and from the skin
 Chicken- 17% heat loss

h. By the feces and urine-insignificant heat is eliminated by this way

Comfort Zone or Zone of Thermoneutrality- is a range of environmental temperature within

which the animal does not have to adjust to the environment.
Critical Temperatures- is the temperature of the environment at which the heat-retaining
mechanisms of the body are no longer able to maintain constant body temperature and heat
production being increased to meet the requirements of the body.
a. Hair, wool, fur, feather, thick layer of subcutaneous fat lower the crtical temperature
b. Lower in non-fasting than in fasting animals. Cattle and sheep have the lowest critical
temperature but they are able to withstand cold conditions.

The body temperature is the resulting balance of heat production and heat dissipation,
influenced by age, sex, season, time of the day, exercise, feeding, drinking and digestion.

Hypothermia is the reduction of deep body temperature below the normal.

Fever is a rise in deep body temperature that develops during pathological conditions

Physiological response to heat:

a. Circulatory adjustment
Cutaneous vasodilation causes a rise in the skin temperature which steepens the
thermal exchange gradient for environmental temperature below skin temperature.
b. Evaporative heat loss
 Sweating
 Panting-is a rapid breathing (polypnea) with open mouth.

Physiological responses to cold

a. Reduction of heat loss
This includes curled-up position of animals and piloerection. Piloerection is increased fur
growth and subcutaneous fat deposition.
b. Increase heat production by shivering
c. Circulatory adjustment

Normal body temperature of domestic animas:

ANIMAL RANGE oC AVERAGE oC
Stallion 37.2-38.1 37.6
Mare 37.3-38.2 37.8
Beef cow 36.7-39.1 38.3
Dairy cow 38.0-39.3 38.6
Sheep 38.3-39.9 39.1

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Goat 38.5-39.7 39.1

Pig 38.7-39.8 39.2
Dog 37.9-39.9 38.9

Cat 38.1-39.2 38.6

Chicken (daylight) 40.6-43.0 41.7

13. SENSE ORGANS

Sensation is the result of afferent impulses from stimuli that eventually reach a conscious
level in the cerebral cortex. Special senses include smell, sight, taste, hearing and equilibrium.
Organic sensations include hunger, thirst, sensation of bladder fullness and sexual sensation.
Tongue: organ of taste. three specific taste modalities in man: bitter taste, at the base of
the tongue; sour taste, in the lateral sides of the tongue; sweet and salty taste, in the tip of the
tongue.
Nostril: organ of smell. Nerve impulses from the olfactory receptor travel to the olfactory
bulb of the brain and along the two olfactory tracts which channel the impulses to interpretive
center or cells deeper within the brain.

Ear: Organ of hearing and balance. There are three main parts of the ear:
a. external ear-it extends from the exterior as far as the tympanic membrane.
Auricle or pinna- a funnel-shaped outer part composed of skin and elastic cartilage
b. middle ear- it extends from the tympanic membrane into the air-filled excavation within the
petrous temporal bone.Three auditory ossicles found in the middle ear: malleus or
hammer, incus or anvil, stapes or stirrup
c. inner ear- it is also excavated in the petrous temporal bone but is filled with fluid. The inner
ear is an essential portion of the organ of hearing and balance or equilibrium. Because
of its complex shape it is called labyrinth.

Eye: Organ of sight

a. Conjunctiva. A thin epithelium which covers the anterior surface of the eyeball and cornea.
b. Eyelids. Two flaps of the skin that serve to close or cover the eye
c. Eyelashes. Special hairs which act as protective screens and dust filters.
d. Meibomian or tarsal gland. Specialized sebaceous gland located at the base of the hair
follicles of the lashes of the upper eyelid.
e. Third eyelid. Transverse sheet of thin translucent membrane located in the median canthus
of the eye.

Major Parts of the Eye:

a. Fibrous tunic
 sclera-an opaque posterior part of the external coat of the eye. It is a dense fibrous
membrane which is white but may have a bluish tinge in its thinner part.
 cornea- a transparent anterior part of the external coat of the eye. It is colorless and non-
vascular.
b. Vascular tunic
 choroid- a thin, opaque membrane that lies between the sclera and the retina
 ciliary body- the middle portion of the vascular tunic
 iris-forms the anterior of the vascular coat. It is a pigmented structure that forms a curtain to
control the amount of light entering the eye.
c. Nervous tunic
 retina- a thin neuroepithelium which is closely attached to the choroid and extends from the
optic disc to the border of the ciliary ring. It contains the rods and cones, which are receptive
to the light stimuli.

All organism, whether plant or animal reproduce, grow, breathe, eat exercise and respond
to their environment. Special parts / areas of anima bodies are often organized to accomplish
each of these tasks. Differences of the anatomy, however, occur animals among animals
because among other reasons, of the emergence of life from the different conditions, result to
various features to accommodate the exigencies of life. Thus, this module explains the body
parts and organs which composed the different body systems that facilitate the normal functions
of an animal body.

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IV. REFERENCES

Badua, A.T., Domingo, I.J., Galamgam, A.S., Martin, E.A., and M.S. Suba. Lecture Manual in
ANSCI 101. Introduction to Animal Science. ISBN: 978-971-705-360-8. Central Luzon State
University, Center for Educational Resources Development and Services (CERDS).
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines 3120. Telefax: 044-456-5709. Email:
[email protected]

Acker, D and M. Cunningham. 2001. Animal Science and Industry. Pretence-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA.

Bone, J.F. 1982. Animal Anatomy and Physiology. Reston Publishing Company, Inc,
Virginia, USA.

Cunningham, J.G. 1997. Textbook of Veterinary Physiology. W.B. Saunders, Company,

Pennsylvania, USA.

Frandson, R. D., W. Lee Wilke and A. D. Fails. 2003. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals.
Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, USA.

Hafez, E.S.E. 1985. Farm Animal Reproduction. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, USA.

Battaglia, R. EV. Magrose. Handbook of Livestock Management Techniques. 1981. Menidlan

Bush Co.

Reece, W.O. 1991. Physiology of Domestic Animals. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, USA.

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Name:________________________________ Rating: ______________________

Year/Section: __________________________ Signature: ____________________

Assignment No. 2

Research and answer the following: Write and illustrate the following in a yellow pad and
submit it on your next laboratory schedule.

1. Identify the varying muscles of a swine animal, illustrate and give the functions of the
corresponding muscle.
a. Muscles of the head and neck
b. Muscles of the thorax, vertebral column and abdomen
c. Muscles of the thoracic limb
d. Muscles of the pelvic limb

2. Normal respiratory and heart rate of the following fsarm animals:

Animal Respiratory rate Heart rate
1. Buffalo
2. Cattle
3. Horse
4. Goat
5. Sheep
6. Swine
7. Chicken
8. Duck
9. Goose
10. Quail

3. Describe the shapes of kidneys of the following farm animals:

Animal Description of shape of kidneys
1. Buffalo
2. Cattle
3. Horse
4. Goat
5. Sheep
6. Swine
7. Chicken
8. Duck
9. Goose
10. Quail

4. Draw, Color and give the functions of the following male reproductive organs of bull:
Organs Functions
Testis (green)
Tail of Epididymis (yellow)
Head of Epididymis(red)
Prostate(black)
Vas deferens(violet)
Cowper’s Glands(blue)

Draw, Color and give the functions of the following female reproductive organs of cow:
Organs Functions
Cervix (yellow)
Vagina(blue)
Uterus(green)
Vulva (red)
Ovary(orange)
Oviduct (violet)

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5. Describe the compartments of the ruminant stomach and briefly describe each
Compartment Common name Description
RUMEN

RETICULUM

OMASUM

ABOMASUM

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