UNIT – IV
Computer Networks: Advantages of computer networks, LAN, WAN, MAN, internet, WiFi,
sensor networks, vehicular networks, 5G communication. World Wide Web – Basics, role of
HTML, CSS, XML, Tools for web designing, Social media, Online social networks. Security –
information security, cyber security, cyber laws
Computer Network:
Computer Network: A computer network is a collection of linked computers and other gadgets that
enable resource sharing, data exchange, and communication. To facilitate effective data exchange and
user participation within the network, these networked devices can communicate with one another and
share resources like files, printers, and internet connections.
Local area networks (LANs) that connect computers and networks within a single structure, wide area
networks (WANs) that link geographically separated places, and global networks like the Internet that
connect computers and networks worldwide are just a few different configurations for computer networks.
Advantages of Computer Network
Computer Networks have been put in place after a lot of decision-making and analysis, and it is expected
to be the future of our evolution. That's why it is essential to know its advantages. The list of benefits of
computer networks are:
1. Enhancement of Communication and Information Availability:
By offering faster and more advanced methods to connect individuals, computer networks have
revolutionized communication. Messaging, video calls, and file sharing have facilitated global user
connectivity. Facebook is a prime example of a business that has boomed because of information
availability and communication.
2. Convenient Sharing of Resources:
Vast amounts of data production by large organizations can be a useful resource for current and future
endeavours. Within these organizations, computer networks share resources, enabling effective data
interchange and collaboration. This functionality is crucial for optimizing daily operations and ensuring
that resources are available in several industries, including education, transportation, and hospitality.
3. Easy File/Data Sharing:
The sharing of files and data sets is the most vital feature of a computer network. The computer present
during the initial stages didn't even have this file-sharing feature. Now, with constant advancements, this
feature has not only been present in the computer network but has also become much easier.
4. Highly Flexible:
To accommodate consumers' changing requirements, modern technology must be adaptive and flexible.
In this sense, computer networks shine, providing a variety of capabilities to accommodate users' desires
for mobile and distant access. Because of their adaptability, computer networks have become a crucial
part of our daily lives, boosting connectedness and ease.
5. Affordable:
The computer network was rare among people twenty years ago because it was mainly used for
commercial purposes and was expensive to install. With time and the rapid modernization of everything
worldwide, networking devices became common among folks, and their cost decreased.
6. Increases Cost Efficiency:
Networking technology is constantly improving, which has prompted the creation of affordable software
and apps. On the Internet, there are a lot of free or inexpensive software options that offer variety and
long-term advantages. These techniques increase production, cut costs, and improve overall cost-
effectiveness. VLC Media Player, Discord, WinRAR, and torrent clients are examples.
7. Networking Boosts Storage Capacity:
Users can access cloud storage options through computer networks, which maximize storage space at
affordable prices.Users can access and upload the files they need online without using any local device
storage. Google Drive, iCloud, and Dropbox are some well-known cloud storage providers.
8. Enhanced Security and Data Protection:
Advanced security mechanisms are available on computer networks to safeguard sensitive data. To
protect their data from unauthorized access and online dangers, organizations might put in place
firewalls, encryption mechanisms, and access controls.
9. Centralized Management and Control:
Centralized management and control of resources, devices, and security regulations are made possible
via computer networks. Setting up configurations, implementing security patches, and troubleshooting
problems are all made simpler by the ability of network administrators to monitor and administer the
entire network from a single location.
10. Scalability:
Businesses can quickly expand their infrastructure using computer networks to accommodate more
users, devices, and data without experiencing significant disruptions. This adaptability permits effective
expansion and upholds a solid network structure.
Network Topology:
The layout arrangement of the different devices in a network. Common examples
include:Bus,Star, Mesh, Ring, and Daisy chain.
OSI:
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that specifies standards
for communications protocols and also the functionalities of each layer. The OSI has been
developed by the International Organization For Standardization and it is 7 layer architecture.
Each layer of OSI has different functions and each layer has to follow different protocols.
The 7 layers are:-
1. physical layer
2. Data link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer
Protocol:
A protocol is the set of rules or algorithms which define the way how two entities can
communicate across the network and there exists different protocol defined at each layer of the
OSI model. Few of such protocols are TCP, IP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, FTP and so on.
UNIQUE IDENTIFIERS OF NETWORK
IP Address (Internet Protocol address):
Also known as the Logical Address, the IP Address is the network address of the system
across the network.
To identify each device in the world-wide-web, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA) assigns an IPV4 (Version 4) address as a unique identifier to each device on the
Internet.
The length of an IPv4 address is 32-bits, hence, we have 232 IP addresses available. The
length of an IPv6 address is 128-bits.
Type “ipconfig” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the IP address of
the device.
MAC Address (Media Access Control address):
Also known as physical address, the MAC Address is the unique identifier of each host and
is associated with its NIC (Network Interface Card).
A MAC address is assigned to the NIC at the time of manufacturing.
The length of the MAC address is : 12-nibble/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits
Type “ipconfig/all” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the MAC
address.
LAN, MAN and WAN are types of network.
LAN - Local Area Network
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a private network that connects computers and devices within
a limited area like a residence, an office, a building or a campus. On a small scale, LANs are
used to connect personal computers to printers. However, LANs can also extend to a few
kilometers when used by companies, where a large number of computers share a variety of
resources like hardware (e.g. printers, scanners, audio-visual devices etc), software (e.g.
application programs) and data.
Features of LAN
∙ Network size is limited to a small geographical area, presently to a few kilometers. ∙ Data
transfer rate is generally high. They range from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps. ∙ In general, a
LAN uses only one type of transmission medium, commonly category 5 coaxial cables.
∙A LAN is distinguished from other networks by their topologies. The common
topologies are bus, ring, mesh, and star.
∙ The number of computers connected to a LAN is usually restricted. In other words,
LANs are limitedly scalable.
∙ IEEE 802.3 or Ethernet is the most common LAN. They use a wired medium in conjuncture
with a switch or a hub. Originally, coaxial cables were used for communications. But
now twisted pair cables and fiber optic cables are also used. Ethernet’s speed has
increased from 2.9 Mbps to 400 Gbps.
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size greater than LAN but smaller
than a WAN. It normally comprises networked interconnections within a city that also offers
a connection to the Internet.
Features of MAN
∙ Network size generally ranges from 5 to 50 km. It may be as small as a group of
buildings in a campus to as large as covering the whole city.
∙ Data rates are moderate to high.
∙ In general, a MAN is either owned by a user group or by a network provider who sells
service to users, rather than a single organization as in LAN.
∙ It facilitates sharing of regional resources.
∙ They provide uplinks for connecting LANs to WANs and Internet.
Examples of MAN
∙ Cable TV network
∙ Telephone networks providing high-speed DSL lines
∙ IEEE 802.16 or WiMAX, that provides high-speed broadband access with Internet
connectivity to customer premises.
WAN - Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographical area
comprising a region, a country, a continent or even the whole world. WAN includes the
technologies to transmit data, image, audio and video information over long distances and
among different LANs and MANs.
Features of WAN
• ∙ WANs have a large capacity, connecting a large number of computers over a large area,
and are inherently scalable.
• ∙ They facilitate the sharing of regional resources.
• ∙ They provide uplinks for connecting LANs and MANs to the Internet. ∙ Communication
links are provided by public carriers like telephone networks, network providers, cable
systems, satellites etc.
• ∙ Typically, they have low data transfer rate and high propagation delay, i.e.they have low
communication speed.
• ∙ They generally have a higher bit error rate.
Example of WAN
• ∙ The Internet
• ∙ 4G Mobile Broadband Systems
• ∙ A network of bank cash dispensers.
Differences
Following are the important differences between LAN, MAN and WAN.
Sr.No. Key LAN MAN WAN
1 Definition LAN stands for MAN stands for WAN stands for
Local Area Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network.
Network. Network.
2 Ownership LAN is often owned MAN ownership WAN ownership can
by private can be private or be private or public.
organizations. public.
3 Speed LAN speed is quiet MAN speed is WAN speed is lower
high. average. than that of LAN.
4 Delay Network Network Network Propagation
Propagation Delay Propagation Delay Delay is longer in
is short in LAN. is moderate in WAN.
MAN.
5 Congestion LAN has low MAN has higher WAN has higher
congestion as congestion than congestion than both
compared to WAN. LAN. MAN and LAN.
6 Fault Fault Tolerance of Fault Tolerance of Fault Tolerance of
Tolerance LAN is higher than MAN is lower than WAN is lower than
WAN. LAN. both LAN and MAN.
7 Maintenance Designing and Designing and Designing and
maintaining LAN is maintaining WAN maintaining WAN is
easy and less costly is complex and complex and more
than WAN. more costly than costly than both LAN
LAN. and MAN.
Internet
Internet is a global network that connects millions of private, public, academic, and government
networks using standardized communication protocols.
Architecture:
● Client-Server Model: Clients (browsers) send requests to servers, which respond with
requested data.
● Peer-to-Peer Model: Computers act as both clients and servers.
Protocols:
● TCP/IP: Foundation of internet communication.
● DNS (Domain Name System): Translates human-readable domain names into IP addresses.
● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Transfers files between computers.
● HTTP/HTTPS: Enables web browsing, with HTTPS adding encryption.
Services:
● Web browsing, cloud computing, video streaming, and online gaming.
WiFi
WiFi is a wireless technology that allows electronic devices to connect to the internet and
communicate with each other without a physical cable. This uses radio waves to transmit the data
between a WiFi router and compatible devices like smartphones, computers, and smart home
gadgets. These WiFi networks are common in homes, offices, and public spaces providing
convenient internet access and local connectivity. This technology has become an essential part of
modern digital life enabling wireless internet browsing, file sharing, and device communication in
various settings.
Sensor Network
A sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of detecting a physical
phenomenon.In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem
that detects events or changes in its environment and sends the information to other
electronics, frequently a computer processor. Sensors are used in everyday objects such as
touch-sensitive elevator buttons and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, and in
innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in
micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded
beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure and flow measurement.
Applications:
● Environmental monitoring (temperature, humidity, pollution).
● Healthcare (patient monitoring).
● Industrial automation (machine diagnostics).
Vehicular networks
In vehicular networks, a variety of vehicle applications are enabled by communication
between vehicles and infrastructure deployed along roadside (or RSUs). Examples of
applications are the notifications of emergency situations, such as car accidents or bad weather
conditions.
Applications:
● Real-time traffic management.
● Autonomous vehicle navigation.
● Emergency alerts (e.g., accident warnings).
5G communication
5G is the 5th generation mobile network. It is a new global wireless standard after 1G, 2G,
3G, and 4G networks. 5G enables a new kind of network that is designed to connect virtually
everyone and everything together including machines, objects, and devices.
Key Features:
● Speed: Up to 10 Gbps, significantly faster than 4G.
● Latency: As low as 1 millisecond, enabling real-time communication.
● Capacity: Supports billions of devices simultaneously.
Applications:
● Smart Cities: IoT devices for efficient energy and water management.
● Healthcare: Remote surgery and telemedicine.
● Entertainment: AR/VR experiences and cloud gaming.
World Wide Web:
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interlinked documents and resources accessible
via the internet. It uses three components
URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) to locate resources.
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) to facilitate communication between web browsers and
servers.
HTML (HyperText Markup Language) to structure and display web content. Together, these
components enable users to navigate websites, access information, and interact with online
services securely and efficiently.
It allows users to access and interact with websites through web browsers and web servers.
● Web Browser: A software application (e.g., Chrome, Firefox, Safari) that allows users to view
and navigate websites. It sends requests to web servers for web pages and renders them for the
user.
● Web Server: A system or software (e.g., Apache, Nginx, IIS) that stores and delivers web
content in response to browser requests. It processes requests and sends back HTML, images,
and other content.
HTML
HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is the standard markup language used to create and
structure content on the web. It defines the layout and elements of web pages, allowing browsers
to display text, images, links, and multimedia. HTML uses tags enclosed in angle brackets (<
>) to define elements, and these tags typically come in pairs, such as <p> and </p> for
paragraphs.
The <!DOCTYPE html> declaration defines that this document is an HTML5 document
The <html> element is the root element of an HTML page
The <head> element contains meta information about the HTML page
The <title> element specifies a title for the HTML page (which is shown in the browser's title
bar or in the page's tab)
The <body> element defines the document's body, and is a container for all the visible contents,
such as headings, paragraphs, images, hyperlinks, tables, lists, etc.
The <h1> element defines a large heading
The <p> element defines a paragraph
CSS
CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is a stylesheet language used to control the presentation and
layout of web pages written in HTML. It separates the content structure (HTML) from visual
design, allowing developers to style elements such as fonts, colors, spacing, and layout
efficiently.
Example
body {
background-color: lightblue;
h1 {
color: white;
text-align: center;
p{
font-family: verdana;
font-size: 20px;
XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
It is a simple, flexible, and standardized way to store and transport data. Unlike HTML, which is used
for displaying content on the web, XML focuses on describing data and making it easy to share between
different systems.
Key Features of XML:
1. Custom Tags: Unlike HTML, which has predefined tags, XML allows users to define their own
tags to describe data.
2. Data Structure: XML data is stored in a hierarchical structure, making it easy to organize and
read. It uses elements (tags) to group related pieces of data.
Example:
<book>
<title>XML Basics</title>
<author>Jane Smith</author>
</book>
3. Human-Readable: The data in XML is stored in plain text, so it is readable by both humans and
machines.
4. Self-Descriptive: Each tag describes the data it holds, making it easier to understand the
information without additional explanations.
5. Platform-Independent: XML can be used across different systems, making it ideal for data
sharing between applications, websites, and services.
Information security:
Information Security is not only about securing information from unauthorized access.
Information Security is basically the practice of preventing unauthorized access, use, disclosure,
disruption, modification, inspection, recording, or destruction of information. Information can
be a physical or electronic one. Information can be anything like Your details or we can say
your profile on social media, your data on your mobile phone, your biometrics, etc.
Information Security programs are build around 3 objectives, commonly known as CIA –
Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability.
Confidentiality – Means information is not disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities and
process. For example if we say I have a password for my Gmail account but someone saw while
I was doing a login into Gmail account. In that case my password has been compromised and
Confidentiality has been breached.
Integrity – Means maintaining accuracy and completeness of data. This means data cannot be
edited in an unauthorized way. For example if an employee leaves an organisation then in that
case data for that employee in all departments like accounts, should be updated to reflect status
to JOB LEFT so that data is complete and accurate and in addition to this only authorized person
should be allowed to edit employee data.
Availability – Means information must be available when needed. For example if one needs to
access information of a particular employee to check whether employee has outstanded the
number of leaves, in that case it requires collaboration from different organizational teams like
network operations, development operations, incident response and policy/change
management.
Types of Information Security
Information Security (InfoSec) focuses on protecting data from threats and unauthorized access.
Here are five important types:
Network Security: Protects computer networks from attacks and unauthorized access using
tools like firewalls, Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS), and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs
Application Security: Secures software applications by finding and fixing vulnerabilities,
using methods like code reviews and security patches.
Data Security: Ensures data safety during storage and transfer by using encryption and data
masking.
Endpoint Security: Secures individual devices such as computers, smartphones, and tablets
through antivirus software and Endpoint Detection and Response (EDR) tools.
Cloud Security: Protects data and applications hosted in cloud environments with measures
like secure cloud configurations and Identity and Access Management (IAM).
How to Prevent
● Limiting access to sensitive data and systems to authorized individuals only.
● Encoding data to prevent unauthorized access, ensuring confidentiality.
● Firewalls: Monitor and filter incoming and outgoing network traffic.
● IDS: Detect unauthorized access attempts and suspicious activities within a network.
● Regularly backing up important data to prevent loss in case of cyberattacks, system failures, or
disasters.
● Educating employees and users on safe practices, recognizing phishing attempts, and avoiding
risky behaviors.
Cyber security
Cybersecurity refers to the practice of protecting systems, networks, programs, and data from
cyber attacks, damage, or unauthorized access. With the increasing reliance on digital platforms
and technologies, the importance of cybersecurity has grown to safeguard personal, corporate,
and governmental data from a variety of threats.
Key Goals of Cybersecurity
Confidentiality: Ensuring that information is only accessible to those who are authorized to
access it.
Integrity: Maintaining the accuracy and reliability of data by preventing unauthorized
modification.
Availability: Ensuring that authorized users have access to data and resources when needed.
Key Areas:
1. Network Security: Protects networks from unauthorized access and attacks.
2. Information Security: Secures sensitive data using encryption and access controls.
3. Application Security: Ensures software is free from vulnerabilities.
4. Endpoint Security: Secures devices like laptops and mobile phones.
5. Cloud Security: Protects data and services stored in the cloud.
6. Identity & Access Management (IAM): Manages who has access to what data.
7. Incident Response: Detects and responds to security incidents.
Best Practices:
● Use Strong Passwords and Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)
● Regular Software Updates to patch vulnerabilities
● Encryption of sensitive data
● Employee Training on identifying threats like phishing
● Backup and Disaster Recovery Plans
Cyber laws
Cyber Law refers to the legal aspects related to the use of the internet, digital technologies, and
online activities. It deals with issues such as online transactions, data privacy, cybersecurity,
intellectual property rights, and more, aiming to regulate and protect users, businesses, and the
digital environment.
Example:
The Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000 (India):
○ India's primary law to address cybercrime and electronic commerce.
○ Covers offenses like hacking, identity theft, and cyber terrorism.
○ Establishes guidelines for electronic contracts and digital signatures.
Importance of Cyber Laws:
● Protects individuals and organizations from cybercrimes and misuse of personal data.
● Regulates online behavior and ensures fair use of technology.
● Provides legal recourse for victims of cybercrimes.
● Promotes digital trust by ensuring compliance with privacy and data protection standard.
