KIIT POLYTECHNIC

CHAPTER -4
OSCILLOSCOPE
Discuss the basic principle of Oscilloscope.
It is a device that allows the amplitude of electrical signal
wheather voltage, current or power to be displayed a function
of time.
 It is basically an electron beam voltmeter
 It depends on the movement of an electron beam to impinge on
phosphor screen, which produces a visible spot.
 When the electron beam is deflected by some means in two
axes (x & y) the visible spot can be used to create a two
dimensional graph .
 Oscilloscope is capable of displaying events that take place
over periods of microseconds and nanosecond.
Discuss the Block Diagram of Oscilloscope & Simple CRO.

 The block diagram of simple CRO is as shown in

figure below.

 Here the Oscilloscopes are used to observe the

change of an electrical signal over time, such that
voltage and time describe a shape which is
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 39 Abhiram Pradhan
 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
continuously graphed against a calibrated scale.

 The observed waveform can be analyzed for such

properties as amplitude, frequency, rise time, time
interval, distortion and others.

 Modern digital instruments may calculate and

display these properties directly.

 Originally, calculation of these values required

manually measuring the waveform against the
scales built into the screen of the instrument.

 The oscilloscope can be adjusted so that repetitive

signals can be observed as a continuous shape on
the screen.

 A storage oscilloscope allows single events to be

captured by the instrument and displayed for a
relatively long time, allowing human observation of
events too fast to be directly perceptible.

 Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine,

engineering, and telecommunications industry.

 General-purpose instruments are used for

maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory
work.

 Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such

purposes as analyzing an automotive ignition
system or to display the waveform of the heartbeat
as an electrocardiogram.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 40 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Dual Trace CRO:

Definition: The oscilloscope which is capable to display two

signals at a time on a screen having single election gun is
called as dual trace oscilloscope.

Diagram:

Construction:
 It Consists of two attenuator which conditions the input
signal.
 It consists of two preamplifier which.
 Amplifies the signal coming from attempt.
 It consists of an electronic switch and vertical amplifier.

WORKING
 In this type of oscilloscope both the input signal are applied
simultaneously but it has one election gun.
 Both the signals are fed to the electronic switch through
preamplifier.
 The electronic switch connects the signals to the vertical
amplifier by two ways.
 One way of connecting the signal to the vertical amplifier
expects is alternate made of operation, but it is not suitable for
low frequency signals.
 Another way of connecting the signal to the vertical amplifier
is chap mode of operation.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 41 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Lissajous Pattern :-
 A set of patterns obtained when two sinusoidal waves are
applied to the both horizontal and vertical defecting plates
(x&y) of CRO simultaneously. Are called as lissajous pattern.
 These patterns are as per the name of scientist. Jauls
Antonmene lissajous .
 The shape of the Lissajous pattern depends on the frequency
and phase relationship of the two-sine wave.

phase measurement :-
Procedure :
 To measure the phase angle between two sinusoidal signal.
 The signal is fed to Y-plate and another signal is feed to the x-
plates:
 If two signals are in phase, the display is as shown in the
figure:
 If phase angle is 1800 Then figure is

Figure:
 If phase angle is 900 Then the figure is
Figure:
Phase angle in between 0 and 90 or 270 and 360 Then the figure:

Frequency Measurement :-
 Both the signal is applied to X &Y input simultaneously.
 Oscilloscope’s internal sweep and sync. Control is switch off.
Application of CRO:-
1) Tracing of Signal
2) Measurement of amplitude of signal
3) Comparison of phase & frequency of signal.
4) Measurement of capacitance and inductance.
5) In television Radar.
6) For engine pressure analysis.
7) For studying heart beats nervous reactions.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 42 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE

Construction
 It consists of Alternator writer amplifier & sample and hold
circuit.
 It consists of ADC, trigger CRT and memory.
 It consists control logic unit, DAC and horizontal Amplifier.

Diagram:

Working :-
 The Signal is amplified and attenuated and given to the sample
and hold circuit and trigger circuit.
 The output of sample and hold circuit is given to the Analog to-
Digital converter which converts our analog signal into digital
data.
 This digital data is given to memory which is given to vertical
deflection amplifier through D/A.
 The Control logic also gives another signed to CRT through
horizontal defection amplifier through D/A.
 By receiving both the signal CRT displays.
ADVANTAGES :-
 Infinite strong time.
 Easy to operate.
 Signature processing is possible.
 A number of traces can be stored.
 Display of work from is possible by retriggering.
Applications
 It can be used to measurement AC& DC.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 43 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
 It can be used to measure frequency,time period, time interval
between two signals.
 It is used to give visual representation for a target of rader.

High Frequency Oscilloscape:-

 The type of oscilloscope which is capable of displaying signal
of frequency more than 300 KHz are called as HF oscilloscope.
 The HF oscilloscope can display up to 500 MHz signal.
 The HF oscilloscope differ in their internal construction from
LF oscilloscope by their special HF CRTS and high frequency
amplifiers.
 Electron beam
 The HF oscilloscope consists of series of vertical deflection
plates.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 44 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

CHAPTER -5
BRIDGES

5.1 TYPES OF BRIDGES

There are two types of bridge (i) Dc bridges.

(ii) Ac bridges.

5.2 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

The simplest form of bridge is for the purpose of measuring
resistance and is called as wheatstone brodge.

Let R1, R2, and R3 are standard resistors.

R4 = Unknown resistors .
For a balance bridge condition.
VA = VB …………… (1)
I1 = I3 And I2 =I4
𝐕
I1 = I3 = ………(2)
R1+R3
𝐕
And I2 =I4 = ……(3)
R2+R4

From equation (1) VA = VB

I1R1=I2R2
𝐕𝐑𝟏 𝐕𝐑𝟐
=
R1+R3 R2+R4
𝐑𝟏 R2
=
R1+R3 R2+R4

R1R4 = R2R4

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 45 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Diagram

5.3 MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTION BY MAXWELL’S BRIDGE

This bridge circuit measures an inductance by comparison with a
variable standard self-inductance.
The connections and the phasor diagrams for balance conditions
are shown in fig:

Let L1 = unknown inductance of resistance R1.

L2 = Variable inductance of fixed resistance r2

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 46 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
R2 = variable resistance connected in series with inductor
L2
R3, R4 = known non-inductive resistances.
The bridge balance equation is
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
Z1 = Z2Z3/Z4…............................(1)
Where Z1= R1 + jwL1
Z2 = R2 +r2+ jwL2
Z3 = R3
Z4 = R4
Putting all values of in equation (1)
We get R1 + jwL1 = (R2 +r2+ jwL2)( R3)/ R4
R1R4 + jwL1 R4 = R2R3 +r2R3+ jwL2R3
By comparing real and imaginary parts we get:
R1R4 = R2R3 +r2R3 ……………Equation (2)
L1 R4 = L2R3 …………………….Equation (3)
From equation (3) we can easily get the value of unknown
inductor L1 since values of L2, R4, R3 is known to us.

Advantages of Maxwell's Bridge

(1) The frequency does not appear in the final

expression of both equations hence it is
independent of frequency.
(2) Maxwell's inductor capacitance bridge is very useful for
the wide range of measurement of inductor at audio
frequencies.

Disadvantages of Maxwell's Bridge

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 47 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
(1) The variable standard capacitor is very expensive.
(2) The bridge is limited to measurement of low quality
coils (1 < Q < 10) and it is also unsuitable for low
value of Q (i.e. Q < 1) from this we conclude that a
Maxwell bridge is used suitable only for medium Q
coils.

The above all limitations are overcome by the modified

bridge which is known as Hay's bridge which does
not use an electrical resistance in parallel with the
capacitor.

5.3 MEASUREMENT OF SELF-INDUCTANCE BY HAY’SBRIDGE

A Hay's bridge is modified Maxwell bridge, now

question arises here in our mind that where we need to
do modification. In order to understand this, let us
consider the connection diagram given below:

Let L1 = unknown inductance of resistance R1.

R2, R3, R4 = Known non-inductive resistance.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 48 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
C4 = Standard capacitor.
At Balance condition Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 ………… Equation (1)
Where Z1 = R1 + jwL1
Z2 = R2
Z3 = R3
Z4 = R4 – j/wc4
By putting all the values of Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4 in equation (1) we get
(R1 + jwL1) (R4 – j/wC4) = R2R3
Or R1R4 + L1/C4 + jwL1R4 – jR1/wC4 = R2R3
Separating the real and imaginary parts we get:
R1R4 + L1/C4 = R2R3 ……………. Equation (2)
and L1R4 = R1/w2C4R4 …………. Equation (3)
By solving equation (2) and (3) we get
L1 = R2R3C4/ (1+ w2C42R42) …………………. Equation (5)
R1 = W2R2R3R4C42/ (1+ w2C42R42) ……...Equation (6)
From the equation (5) and (6) it is clear that inductance value
depends on frequency of the source of supply to the bridg
Hay's Bridge Applications

 Before we introduce Hay's bridge let us recall the

limitations of Maxwell Bridge, in order to understand
what is the necessity of Hay's bridge applications.

 Maxwell bridge is only suitable for measuring

medium quality factor coils however it is not suitable
for measuring high quality factor (Q > 10). In order
to overcome from this limitation we need to do
modification in Maxwell bridge so that it will become

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 49 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
suitable for measuring Q factor over a wide range.

 This modified Maxwell bridge is known as Hay's

bridge.

Advantages of Hay's Bridge

(1) The bridge gives very simple expression for the

calculation of unknown inductor of high value. The
Hay's bridge requires low value of r4 while Maxwell
bridge requires high value of r4. Now let us analyze
why should put low value of r4 in this bridge:Consider
the expression of quality factor, As r4 presents in the
denominator hence for high quality factor, r4 must be
small.
Disadvantages of Hay's Bridge

Hay's bridge is not suitable for

measurement of quality factor (Q<10) for

Q<10 we should use Maxwell bridge.

5.4 Measurement of capacitance by Schering’s Bridge

Diagram:

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 50 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
Let C1 = Unknown capacitor whose capacitance is
to be determined.
R1 = A series resistance represents loss in
capacitor C1.
C2 = A loss free standard capacitor.
R3 = A non-inductive resistor.
C4 = A variable capacitor.
R4 =A variable non-inductive resistor in parallel
with capacitor C4.
At Balance condition.
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 ………… Equation (1)
Where Z1 = R1+ 1/jwC1
Z2 = 1/ jwC2
Z3 = R3
Z4 = R4/(1+ jwC4R4)
By putting all the values of Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4 in equation (1) we get
(R1+ 1/jwC1)( R4/(1+ jwC4R4) = R3/ jwC2
Or (R1+ 1/jwC1) R4 = (R3/ jwC2) (1+ jwC4R4)
Or R1R4 – jR4/ wC2 = jR3/wC2 + R3R4C4
Equating the real and imaginary terms we get
R1 = R3C4/C2 ………………Equation (2)
C1 = C2 (R4/ R3) …………...Equation (3)
From equation (3) we can easily find the value of
unknown capacitor.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 51 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

5.4-MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE BY DESAUTY’S BRIDGE

Diagram:

Let C1 = Unknown capacitor whose capacitance is to be

determined.
C2 = A standard capacitor.
R3, R4 = non-inductive resistors.
At Balance condition
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 ………… Equation (1)
Where Z1 = 1/jwC1
Z2 = 1/ jwC2
Z3 = R3
Z4 = R4
By putting all the values of Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4 in equation (1) we get
(1/jwC1) R4 = (1/ jwC2) R3
Or C1 = C2R4/ R3 ………………Equation(2)
From equation (2) we can get value of unknown capacitor very easily.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 52 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
5.5 WORKING OF Q METER.

Def :-The instrument which is designed to measure electrical

properties of coils and captions is called as Q-met.
Principle :- The Principle of the Q-meter is based on series resonance,
the voltage drop areas the coil or cap
Construction:
 It consists of a wide range of oscillator which is used as power
supply of the circuit.
 It also consist of a shunt resister Rsh inductor L , resonating
capacitor CR .
 It consists of electronic voltmeter calibrated in Q-value &
thermocouple voltmeter.
Working:
 Quality factor is nothing the ratio of reactance to
resistance.(XL/R).
 When a fixed is applied to the circuit, voltmeter across the
capacitor can be calibrated to read directly.
 Where XL= Inductive reactance.
Xc=capacitive reactance
R = Coil resistance.
I= circuit current.
VL=Inductive voltage
Vc=Capacitor voltage
At resonance XL=XC
VL=IXL
VC=IXC
V= IR
Therefore Q= XL/R =XC/R =1/ωcR=VC/V…….(1)

 In the above equation if V is kept constant, the voltage across

the capacitor can be measured by voltmeter calibrated to read
directly in terms of Q.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 53 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
5.6 LCR METER & IT IS MEASUREMENTS
Def: It is defined as the electronic measuring instrument which
can measures values of inductances (L), Capacitance (c) &
Resistance (R) directly.
CKT Diagram

Construction
 It consists of a permanent magnet moving coil instrument.
 The scale of the meter is calibrated in terms of R, L, C.
 It consists of an emitter follower circuits.
 It consists of a detector amplifier.
 It consists of a rectifier.
 It also consists of Wheatstone bridge.

WORKING
 When the test component is set at the test terminal the current
passes through it.
 The bridge is adjusted in null position in order to balance it
completely.
 The output from the bridge is fed to emitter follower circuit.
 The output from emitter follower circuit is given as an input
to detector amplifier.
 The detector amplifier is used in order to prevent the fall of
voltage level during measurement process.
 The rectifier is used in the circuit to convert the AC signal into
DC signal.
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 54 Abhiram Pradhan
 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
 At last the DC signal is converted to digital data which is
shown in the display device.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 55 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

CHAPTER-6
TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS

Definition of transducers: The device which transforms the energy of the

process variable to an output of some other type of energy which is able to
operate some control device is called as transducer.
Definition of Sensor: the device which sense the condition, state or value of
the process variable and produce an output which reflects this condition,
state or variable.

Method of Selecting transducers:

 There are many ways for measurement of a physical quantity.

While selection of transducers.
 How to select a transducer for a particular application,
following points should be kept in the mind.
 Unfortunately most transducers are not sensitive to just one
quantity. If measurements are to be made under conditions
where there is likelihood of two or more input quantities
influencing the transducer.
 it is desirable to select a transducer which is sensitive to the
desirable quantity and insensitive to the unwanted quantity.
 If this is not possible, ways and means should be found to
eliminate or compensate for the effects of the unwanted input
quantity.
 Operating Principle. The transducers are many times selected
on the basis of operating principle used by them. The
operating principles used may be resistive, inductive,
capacitive, optoelectronic, piezoelectric etc.
 Sensitivity. The transducer must be sensitive enough to
produce detectable output.
 Operating Range. The transducer should maintain the range
requirements and have a good resolution over its entire range.
ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 56 Abhiram Pradhan
 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
The rating of the transducer should be sufficient so that it
does not breakdown while working in its specified operating
range.
 Accuracy. High degree of accuracy is assured if the transducer
does not require frequent calibration and has a small value for
repeatability. It may be emphasized that in most industrial
applications, repeatability is of considerably more importance
than absolute accuracy.
 Cross sensitivity. Cross sensitivity is a further factor to be
taken into account when measuring mechanical quantities.
There are situations where the actual quantity is being
measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to
variations in another plane. More than one promising
transducer design has had to be abandoned because the
sensitivity to variations of the measured quantity in a plane
perpendicular to the required plane has been such as to give
completely erroneous results when the transducer has been
used in practice.
Advantages of transducers:
 Attenuation can be done easily.
 Mass inactivity effects can be reduced.
 Friction effects can be reduced.
 The output can be specified & recorded remotely at a distance
from the sensing medium.
 The signal can be mixed to get any permutation with outputs of
related transducers otherwise control signals.

Working principle of Strain Gauges, define Strain Gauge.

 A strain gauge is a type of electrical sensor.

 A strain gauge is a sensor whose measured electrical resistance
varies with changes in strain.
 Strain is the deformation or displacement of material that
results from an applied stress.
 Stress is the force applied to a material, divided by the
material’s cross-sectional area.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 57 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
 Strain gauges convert the applied force, pressure, torque, etc.
into an electrical signal which can be measured.
 Force causes strain, which is then measured with the strain
gauge by way of a change in electrical resistance.
 Then the voltage measurement is done by electrical
instruments.

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

Working principle of LVDT

Principle:
 The working of LVDT is based on the principle of Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction that states that “the net
induced emf in the circuit is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux across the circuit, and the magnetic
flux of the coil wounded with wires can be changed by moving
a bar magnet through the coil.
 LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

DIAGRAM:

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 58 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

CONSTRUCTION:
 The structure of LVDT is similar to the transformer.
 It consists of one primary winding, i.e., P and two secondary
windings, i.e., S1 and S2.
 The primary and secondary windings are wounded on a hollow
cylindrical shaped structure, called former.
 The former is usually made of glass-reinforced polymer
wrapped in a highly permeable material and then covered with
cylindrical steel.
 The primary winding is at the center of the cylindrical former
and the secondary windings are present on both sides of the
primary winding at an equal distance from the center.
 Both the secondary windings consist of an equal number of
turns, and they are linked with each other in series opposition.
 The movable part of LVDT is a separate arm that is made up of
a magnetic material.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 59 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
 It is usually a soft iron core, which is laminated to reduce the
losses due to eddy current.
 The core can freely move within the hollow coil (former), and
the object whose displacement is to be measured is attached to
the core through a non-magnetic rod.

Working of LVDT:
 When current flows through the primary winding it induces
voltage across the secondary coils.
 Let the induced voltage be E1 and E2 across the secondary coils
S1 & S2 respectively.
 Since the secondary windings are connected in series and
opposite phases their net induced voltage will be E=E1~E2.
 The net emf induced in the circuit depends upon the position of
the movable core; let us discuss the three different cases
according to the position of the core.

 CASE 1: Core at the Null Position

 when the core is placed at the center, the induced emf’s E1 and
E2 in the secondary windings S1 and S2 respectively will be
the same, i.e., E1=E2.
 Hence, the net induced emf (Eo) in the circuit at the normal
position of the core is zero (E1-E2=0).
 The normal position of the soft iron core at which the net
induced emf is zero is called the ‘Null Position’ of the
LVDT.As shown in the figure.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 60 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

 CASE 2: Core at the Left of Null Position

 If the core is moved towards the left from the null position,
the induced emf in coil S1 will be larger than the induced
emf in coil S2.
 Hence, the tool output voltage (E output) of LVDT is given
by, E output= E1 – E2 = Positive (E1> E2)

 CASE 3: Core at the Right of Null Position

 If the core is displaced from the null position and moved
towards the right, the induced emf in winding S2 will
become more than the emf induced in winding S1.
 Hence, the tool output voltage (Eoutput) of LVDT is given
by, E output = E1 – E2 = Negative (E2 > E1).
 From all the three cases discussed above, it can be concluded
that the displacement of the body is directly proportional to the
output voltage.
 Hence, the direction of the movement of the body attached to
the core of the LVDT can be find out with the help of net
output voltage obtained across the output terminal of the
LVDT.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS (PRESSURE)

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 61 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
Working principle of capacitive transducers (pressure)
 A linear change in capacitance with changes in the physical
position of the moving element is used to provide an electrical
indication of the element’s position.
 The capacitance is given by
A
C= k
D

where
 K = the dielectric constant
 A = the total area of the capacitor surfaces
 D = distance between two capacitive surfaces
 C = the resultant capacitance.
 From the above equation, it is seen that capacitance
increases (i) if the effective area of the plate is increased,
and (ii) if the material has a high dielectric con-stmt.
 The capacitance is reduced if the spacing between the
plates is increased.
 Transducers which make use of these three methods of
varying capacitance have been developed.
 With proper calibration, each type yields a high degree of
accuracy in measurement.

LOAD CELL (PRESSURE CELL)

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 62 Abhiram Pradhan
 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
 Load cell is a sensor or a transducer that converts a load
or force acting on it into an electrical signal.
 This electrical signal can be a voltage change, current
change or frequency change depending on the type of
load cell and circuitry used.

Working principle of Load Cell (Pressure Cell)

 Resistive load cells work on the principle of piezo-
resistivity. When a load/force/stress is applied to the
sensor, it changes its resistance. This change in
resistance leads to a change in output voltage when a
input voltage is applied.
 Capacitive load cells work on the principle of change of
capacitance which is the ability of a system to hold a
certain amount of charge when a voltage is applied to it.
For common parallel plate capacitors, the capacitance is
directly proportional to the amount of overlap of the plates
and the dielectric between the plates and inversely
proportional to the gap between the plates.
 A load cell consists of an elastic member as the primary
transducer and strain gauges as secondary transducer.
 When combination of the strain gauge and elastic member is
used for weighing, it is called as load cell.
Load cells one various types
(i) Hydraulic load cells.
(ii) Pneumatic load cell.
(iii) Strain-gauge load cell.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCER
(RTD,OPTICAL PYROMETER, THERMOCOUPLE , THERMISTER)

 A Temperature Transducer is a device that converts the thermal

quantity into any physical quantity such as mechanical energy,
pressure and electrical signals etc.
 Temperature transducers consist of sensing element,
metal enclose, and external output terminal.
 Sensing elements are categorized into two types.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 63 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
(i) Contact sensor device.
Direct contact with the substances and the heat transfer
occurs to the sensing element in the form of conduction.
These type of preferable for high temperature
measurement, typically 50 to 2500 + deg.
Example: Thermocouple
(ii)Noncontact sensor device.
It does not have direct contact with the substances. There is
a metal enclose is used to protect the sensing element.
Example: Thermister.

RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) :-

 RTD is also called as Resistance Themometer.
 RTD works on the principle of change in temperature of a
conductor changes the resistance of that conductor.
 The variation of resistance R with temperature T (ºk) can be
represented by the allowing relationship.
 R=R0(1+α1T+ α2T2+ α3T3+……+).
Where R0= Resistance of the conductor at temperature T=o0K.
α= Temperature coefficient.

 Generally platinum wire is used for RTD.

THERMISTORS:-
 Thermistor is a contraction of a thermal resistors.
 Thermistors are generally composed of mixture of metallic
oxides.
 Thermistors works on the principle of change in resistance of
conductor with the change in temperature of that conductor.
 Generally most of the thermistors have –ve temperature
coefficient.
 They are usually called the ideal temperature transducer.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 64 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Properties of Thermistors
 They have Negative Thermal Coefficient i.e. resistance of the
thermistor decreases with increase in temperature.
 They are made up of the semiconductor materials.
 They are more sensitive than RTD (Resistance Thermometers)
and Thermocouples.
 Their resistance lies between 0.5Ω to 0.75 MΩ.
 They are generally used in applications where measurement
range of temperature -60•oC to 15•oC.

Thermocouples
 Thermocouple works on the seeback effect, which states that
when two metals having different work functions are placed
together a voltage difference is generate at Junction which is
nearly proportional to the temperature difference between these
two junction.
 Thermocouples are temperature transducers that are
basically consists of two junctions of dissimilar metals,
such as copper and constantan that are welded.
 One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the
reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring
(Hot) junction.
 When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a
voltage is developed across the junction which is used to
measure the temperature.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 65 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
Principle of Thermocouple
 When the junctions of two metals such as copper and
constantan are connected together the potential difference is
produced is between them.
 The phenomenon is called as the seebbeck effect as a
temperature gradient is generated along the conducting wires
producing an emf.
 Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of
the temperature changes.

Main Features of Thermocouples

 Thermocouples have good sensitivity.
 Extreme temperatures of range between -200oC to over
+2000oC can be measured with thermocouples which is an
advantage over both RTD and Thermistor.
 They are the Active Transducers so they don’t require any
external source for measuring of temperature as like RTD’s
and Thermistors.
 They are the cheaper than both RTD’s and Thermistors.
 These have small accuracy as compared to RTD’s and
Thermistors so generally they are not used for high precision
work.
 It is suitable for very high frequency measurement.
 Its accuracy is very high.

OPTICAL PYROMETER

 The noncontact type temperature measurement in which

operation of the device happen on the visible radiation from the
measurand and is called optical pyrometer.
 Optical pyrometer makes use of the variations in color of a hot
body and interprets this phenomena in terms of temperature.
 When a body is heated, it initially becomes dark red turns to
orange, and finally becomes white.
 The actual measurement of temperature is based upon the
determination of the changes in color of the hot body, and

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 66 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
comparing it with known values produced with a heated
filament.

Working principle of Current transducer

 A current transducer is a device that converts alternating or

direct electrical signals into a proportional industrial standard
electrical signal.

Construction

 Current transducer consists of sensitive component.

 It also consists of a conversion component.
 It consists of a conversion circuit.
 It consists of a power circuit.

Diagram

WORKING

 First of all the sensitive component will detect the incoming

electrical signal and give a signal.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 67 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
 After that the signal will be passed to conversion component,
which can convert the signal to a small current signal.
 Then it will be passed to conversion circuit, which process the
small current signal and provide an industrial standard
electrical signal, usually is 0-5V, 4-20mA, RS485.
 At the end the output signal goes to terminal equipment, such
as display, PLC, alarm unit, automation control, etc.
 Current transducer usually has a power circuit, which provide
the power to conversion component and conversion circuit.
KW Transducer.

 A watt or power transducer measures true electrical

power delivered to a load and converts that measurement
to a DC voltage or current signal proportional to the
power measured.
 To measure power, the watt transducer must monitor
both the voltage and current in a circuit.
 Further, it must be able to accurately determine the
phase relationship between the voltage and current.
 This is the angle by which the current leads or lags the
voltage.
 This measurement is very important to accurately
determine true power.
 The watt transducer must also measure the power in
each of the branches of the circuit.
 Your house, apartment, or small office is wired in what is
often referred to as the Edison System.
 This is a three-wire, single phase system with two power
lines in a neutral. The watt transducer must measure the
power in each of the power lines or mains.
 This circuit requires a two-element watt transducer.
 A two-element watt transducer has two-watt transducers
in the same case.
 The outputs of the two transducers or multipliers are
summed so that the output signal of the entire watt
transducer represents total power.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 68 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

CHAPTER- 7
SIGNAL GENERATOR, WAVE ANALYZER & DAS

General aspect & classification of Signal generators

Defination of Signal generator: A Signal generator is an instrument that
provides a controlled output waveform or signal for use in testing or
aligning, or in measurements on other circuits or equipments.
Classification of Signal Generator:
The Signal generator can be classified into the following categories:
1. Audio generators
2. Functions
3. Pulse
4. RF
5. Frequency synthesizer.

Working principle of AF since & square wave generator.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 69 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
Construction
 It consists a wein bridge oscillator which provide signals of
audio frequency range.
 It consists of function switch, amplitude control resistors.
 It consists of sine wave amplifier, square wave amplifier.
 It also consists of attenuator and square wave shaper circuit.

Working
 First of all, function switch is placed as per our requirement of
sine wave or square wave amplifier.
 When sine wave section is activated by function switch, the
signal from oscillator reaches at sine wave amplifier through
amplitude control resistor.
 The sine wave amplifier increases the strength of the signal
and gives it to attenuator.
 The attenuator decreases the strength of the spikes present in
the amplified signal and its output sine wave output.
 When sequence wave section in activated by function switch
the signal form oscillator reaches at sequence wave shaper
circuit
 The output of square wave shaper circuit is given to the
sequence would amplifier in order to amplify the strength of
the signal.
 Then the amplified signal is given is given to the attenuator for
cutting of the spikes present in the amplified signal and the
final square wave signal is found.
 Then the amplified signal is given to the attenuator the cutting
of the spikes presents in the amplified signed and the final
sequence wave signal is found.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 70 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Function Generator
Principle:
 It is defined as the instrument that has the capability of
producing different types of wave from as its output signal.
 Function Generator is basically a signal generator that produces
different types of waveforms at the output.
 Function Generator is a versatile instrument as an extensive
variety of frequencies and waveforms are produced by it.

Construction:
 The function generator consists of an integrator and a
frequency control switch.
 It consists of a frequency range selection switch and a submit
trigger.
 It consists of a sine wall convertor and a function switch.
 It also consists of a attenuator for giving a smooth signal.
Working:
 First of all the frequency range selection and frequency control
switch is adjusted as per the requirement.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 71 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
 Then the integrator gives its output which is a triangular wave
as per the frequency control switch to the sine wave generator
and Schmitt trigger.
 If the function switch is connected directly to the integrator
than the output of the function generator is a triangular wave
from.
 If the function switch is connected to the submit trigger than
the output of the generator is a square wave.
 If the function switch is connected to the sine wave converter
then the output of the generator is sine wave.
 In this way the function generator works.
Basic concept of Data acquisition system (DAS)
 It is defined as a system used for data processing, data
conversion data transmission & data various types
 Data acquisition system one of various types
i) Analog data acquisition system.
ii) Digital data acquisition system.
 An analog data acquisition system consists of following
elements
i) Transducers
ii) Signal conditioners.
iii) Calibrating equipments
iv) Integrating equipment
v) Visual devices.
vi) Graphic recording instrument.
vii) Magnetic tape instrumentation.
viii) Analog computers.
ix)High speed camera & TV equipments.
A digital data acquisition system consists of following elements.
i) Transfer
ii) Signal conditioner
iii) Scanner or multiplexer
iv)Signal convertor
v) ADC
vi)System Programmer
vii) Digital recorder
viii) Digital Printer

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 72 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
Function of basic wave analysis & spectrum Analyse
Wave analyser
 It is an instrument which measures relative amplitude of single
frequency components in a complex waveform.
 Wave analyser are of two types basing upon frequency range.
(i)Basic wave analysis
a) Frequency selective wave analyzer (20-20KHZ)
b) Heterodyne wave analyzer (10KHZ to 18 MHZ
Basic wave analyser :-
It is the simplest form of wave analyzer which measures relative
amplitudes of single frequency components in a complex or
distorted wave from.

Construction :-
 It consists of a primary detector.
 It consists of a full wave rectifier.
 It consists of an indicating instrument.

Working:
 The primary detector the single frequency component and
rejects all the frequencies.

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 73 Abhiram Pradhan

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC
 The detected signals average value is provided by the full wave
rectifier.
 The indicating device shows the value of single frequency
component wave/signal.

Wave analyzer based upon frequency range

Wave analyzer based upon frequency range is of two types
(i) Frequency selective wave analysis (20HZ-20KHZ).
(ii) Heterodyne wave analysis (10KHZ-18MHZ).

ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 74 Abhiram Pradhan