Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V.

Jayashankar

Bridges as signal conditioning circuits

We have seen that a capacitive transducer responds to a physical variable

such as a pressure as a change in capacitance viewed from the terminals. By

itself a capacitance change is insufficient for further processing. Such is the case

with most passive transducers such as inductive transducers or resistive

elements. In order to convert the change into electrical quantities it is usual to

incorporate the transducer as part of a bridge. We initially consider the

performance of a Wheatstones bridge with a resistive transducer.

Wheatstones bridge circuit

R1
V1 = Vs
R1 + R2
R4
V2 = Vs
R3 + R 4
Vo = V1 V2
Vo R1 R4
=
Vs R1 + R2 R3 + R 4

At balance, Vo = 0.

R1 R4
= (1)
R1 + R 2 R3 + R 4

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Consider an infinitesimal inductance by increasing R1 + + R2

Vo R1 + R4
= ( assume is small)
Vs R1 + + R2 R3 + R 4

From (1),

Vo R + R1
= 1
Vs R1 + R2 R1 + R 2
R1
= 1
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
R2
=
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
R 2
=
(R1 + R2 )
2

R 2 R3
Let a = =
R1 R 4

Vo R 2 a
= =
R1 (1 + a )
2 2
Vs R
R 1 + 2
1
2

R1

Therefore,

Vo / Vs a
= = S0
/ R1 (1 + a )
2

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Sensitivity:

dS (1 + a ) 2 (1 + a ) a
2

= =0
(1 + a )
2
da

(1 + a ) 2 (1 + a ) a = 0
2

(1 + a ) = 0 ( or ) a =1 and

1
So = = 0.25
4

Sensitivity is maximum for a =1, and the maximum value is S = 0.25.

S reduces rapidly for other values of a.

Implications: Use bridge with a = 1 (i.e., with equal elements or close to 1)

One problem:
Vo changes with Vs . Therefore it is not possible to figure out if change in

Vo is due to R1 change or Vs change.

- use stabilized power supplies.

Vo
- Negative the ratio .
Vs

- Correct for Vs .

- Behavior with large :

Consider the case with R2 = R3 = R 4 = R and

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

R1 = R +
Vo R + R
=
Vs 2R + 2R
Vo /R
=
Vs 2 2 + ( / R )

- not linear.

- not symmetric.

1
Vo
= 1+
Vs 4R 2R

2 3
= 1 + 2
3
+ ...
4R 2R 4R 8R

With first order difference,

Vo
=
Vs 4R

For 2nd order difference,

Vo
= 1
Vs 4R 2R

If we need an overall accuracy of 0.2%, ---------------------------------- is 20% of the

0.04
=
2R 100

In periodic ----------------- ( 0.1 0.2%)
R

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Transducers with multiple sensing arms:

With diagonally sensing arms

R1 and R3 vary by the same amount and R2 and R4 remain constant.

R1 = R3 = R + and

R2 = R 4 = R

1
Vo
= = 1
Vs 2R + 2R 2R

1
Vo / Vs 1
S= = 1 +
/R 2 2R

Vo 2 3
= 1 + 2 3 + ...
Vs 2R 2R 4R 8R

S is twice for a single transducer.

Now consider the case where R1 and R3 change in the opposite direction

R1 = R + ,

R3 = R and R2 = R4 = R

2

Vo 1 R
= 2
Vs 4 1
1
4R

1 1
2 2

= 1 + .
4 R 4 R

Neutralize the effects of ----------------

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Transducer Bridge with Adjacent Sensing Arms:

Case 1:
R1 = R4 = R +

R 2 = R3 = R

Vo = 0

Bridge is balanced through out. Method for compensation changes in

environment.

Case 2: Opposite directions

R1 = R +

R4 = R +

R 2 = R3 = R

1
V / V ' 1
2

S = o 1 = 1
/R 2 2R

1
1
2

S = 1
2 2R

1
2 4

= 1 + + + .....
2 2R 2R

2

- non-linear effect due to and increases linear range.
2R

- symmetric with respect to origin.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

4 Sensing arms: General case

R1 = R3 = R +

R2 = R4 = R

S =1

Example : Strain-Gauge.

AC Bridges
When the bridge is balanced,
Vo = 0 and

Z1 = R1 + jX1, Z2 = R2 + jX2

Z3 =R3 + jX3 ,Z 4 = R4 + jX4

R1 + jX1 R 4 + jX 4
=
R 2 + jX2 R3 + jX3

Each impedance can have different phase angles. Angles other than 0D and 90D

require two elements and hence it is preferable to use only resistance or

reactance in 2 arms. Pure reactances Z1 and Z2 . Pure resistances R1 and R2 .

Ratio N .

Z1 is resistance and R1 and Z2 are pure reactance. Ratio is pure

impedance.

Since -------------- are not realized in practice, bridge configuration modified

to include series resistance.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Classification of 4 arm bridges:

Z1 Z4
Vo = Vs
Z1 + Zo Z3 + Z 4

Let Z1 = Zo corresponding to scalar condition and Z1 = Zo + Z

Z3 Z 2
a= =
Z 4 Z1

Assuming Z  Zo

Vo a Z 1 Z
2

=
Vs (1 + a )2 Zo 1 + a Zo

retaining as 1 to
Vo a Z
=
(1 + a ) Zo
2
Vs

V / Vo a 1 1
S = = = = .
Z / Zo (1 + a ) 2
a + 2 + (1/ a ) T

a
S is maximum when is maximum.
(1 + a )
2

1
T =2+a+ is minium.
a

Let a = .e j

1 1
T = 2 + + cos + j sin

is cons tan t.
If = 1,T0 = 2 + 2 cos

For any other , real part or T > T0 and imaginary pole is non-zero.

Therefore, T0 is minimum of T.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

T0 min= 0.When = ,

L and C in adjacent arms. Bridge is in resonance. Sensitivity of bridge for any

-------- ratio is higher than with real ratio.

1 1
For any sin , max = > .
2 + 2 cos 4

For = 90 ,
1
1. max = .
2
2
z
2. non linearity ....
Z0

Instrumentation amplifier:
IA is a difference amplifier meeting following specification

a) CM and DM input impedances.

b) very low output z.

c) accurate and stable gain (1 103 )

d) very high CMRR.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Triple Op-amp IAs:

Instrumentation amplifier

OA1 and OA 2 from the input stage, OA 3 output or ------- stage.

1. By input voltage constant, voltage across RG is V1 V2 .

2. By input current constant, the resistance R3 carry same current as RG .

Applying Ohms law yields,

V V2
V01 V02 = (R3 + RG + R3 ) 1 [or ]
RG
2R
V01 V02 = 1 + 3 ( V1 V2 )
RG

Input stage is also referred to as differential input, differential output amplifier.

10

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Observe that OA 3 is a differential amplifier

R2
V0 = ( V2 V1 ) .
R1

V0 = A ( V2 V1 )
2R R
A = A I A13 = 1 + 3 2
RG R1

Gain depends on the saturation, resistance . To provide variable gain,

vary RG .

Instrumentation amplifier available in IC form:

AD 522, IN A 01 , B or B0 . All components are present except RG .

Sense and reference terminals are sensed . at good terminals, effect of

any signal is eliminated by with bus.

Dedicated IAs, AO 521/524, AMP- 01, AMP-05.

11

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Flying capacitor technique:

- Alternative for high CMRR.

R
V0 = 1 + 2 ( V2 V1 )
R1

Includes on-chip CLK generator to .and C4 .

C4 = 10nF, f = 500Hz.

C3 low pass filtering.

CMRR 120 dB.

Analog signal processing:

Electromechanical indicating instruments are essentially processors.

Eg. PMMC T l to ki = f ( )

M.I T l to kT2

Functions can be done in the analog domain principally using op-amps.

12

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Type of functions:
y = k1x1 + k 2 x 2 ;kx1x 2
d
( x )dt
1
dt
( x1 )

Symbol:

Properties of ideal amplifier:

Open loop gain = , Ri = , R0 = , BW = and CMRR = .

Examples of using Op-amp:

1. Non-inverting amplifier:

Non inverting amplifier

V0 R
= 2
Vi R1

13

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

2. Inverting amplifier:

Inverting amplifier

Virtual short ground?

3. Summing amplifier:

Summing amplifier

14

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

i1 + i 2 + i 3 = i F
V1 V2 V3 V
+ + = o
R1 R 2 R3 RF
R R R
Vo = F V1 + F V2 + F V3
R1 R2 R3

4. Difference amplifier:

Differential amplifier

V0 = V01 + V02
V01 = V0 with V2 = 0.
V02 = V0 with V1 = 0.
R2
V01 = V1
R1
R
V02 = 1 + 2 Vp
R1
R R 4
= 1 + 2 V2
R1 R 4 + R3
R2
1 +
R2 R1
V0 = V2 V1
R1 R3
1 +
R 4
R R
If 3 = 1 ,
R 4 R2
R2 15
V0 =
R1
[ V2 V1 ]
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Industrial Instrumentation Prof. V. Jayashankar

Introduction to differential mode and common mode:

R2
V0 =
R1
[ V2 V1 ]

VDM  V2 V1 differential mode ----------------- (1)

V2 + V1
VCM  common mode ---------------- ( 2)
2

VDM V
V1 = VCM and V2 = VCM + DM
2 2

If we tie the inputs together VDM = 0 and we apply VCM 0 , a true differential

amplifier will yield V0 = 0.of magnitude and phase of VCM .

A DM
Ratio  CMRR .
A CM

A DM
CMRR dB  20log10
A CM
ideal A CM = 0 and CMRR =

16

Indian Institute of Technology Madras