Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) in
Microcontrollers
ADC Conversion Cycle in Microcontrollers
Sample
Analog Signal
Output Digital Quantize
Signal Signal
ADC
Process
Encode Signal
1. What is an ADC?
An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is an electronic circuit that converts an analog signal,
which varies continuously, into a digital value that can be processed by a microcontroller or
digital system. Microcontrollers cannot directly process analog signals, so the ADC is used to
convert these signals into a format that the microcontroller can understand and manipulate.
The ADC takes an input voltage from an analog source, samples it, and converts it into a
corresponding digital value that the microcontroller can handle.
2. How Does ADC Work?
The basic operation of an ADC involves several key steps:
1. Signal Sampling: The ADC captures the analog signal at a specific moment in time,
creating a sample.
2. Hold the Sample (Sample-and-Hold): The sampled analog voltage is stored in a
capacitor for a brief period to allow conversion.
3. Conversion to Digital: The ADC then converts this analog voltage into a corresponding
digital value. The conversion process uses mathematical algorithms to approximate
the voltage value as a digital number.
4. Output the Digital Value: The final digital value is then made available for further
processing by the microcontroller.
ADC Signal Processing Steps
Output the Digital
Value
Conversion to Digital
Hold the Sample
Signal Sampling
The ADC typically operates within a specific voltage range, such as 0 to 5V or 0 to 3.3V, and
the output is a digital number that corresponds to the input voltage in that range.
3. Types of ADCs in Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers implement different types of ADCs, depending on the requirements of the
application. Some of the most common types include:
1. Successive Approximation ADC
• The Successive Approximation ADC (SAR ADC) uses a binary search algorithm to
approximate the input analog voltage.
• This is one of the most widely used ADC architectures due to its good balance
between speed, accuracy, and cost.
• It is commonly found in microcontrollers like AVR, PIC, and ARM.
2. Flash ADC
• The Flash ADC is the fastest type of ADC and works by using a large number of
comparators to perform the conversion in parallel.
• While it is very fast, it is more expensive and complex because it requires a large
number of comparators.
3. Sigma-Delta ADC
• The Sigma-Delta ADC uses a different technique based on oversampling and noise
shaping to achieve high accuracy.
• It is typically slower than other types but offers excellent resolution and is often used
for high-precision applications.
4. Ramp ADC
• The Ramp ADC slowly changes the input signal and compares it to a reference. It is
simple but relatively slow and not widely used in microcontrollers.
4. Resolution of ADC
The resolution of an ADC refers to the number of bits in the output digital value. The higher
the resolution, the more precise the conversion and the smaller the differences between
measurable voltages. For example:
• An 8-bit ADC provides an output range from 0 to 255 (256 levels).
• A 10-bit ADC provides a range from 0 to 1023 (1024 levels).
• A 12-bit ADC provides a range from 0 to 4095 (4096 levels).
The resolution of the ADC determines how finely it can measure voltage differences. Higher
resolution ADCs can capture more precise voltage variations, which is important in
applications like audio, sensors, and instrumentation.
5. Speed of ADC
The speed of an ADC refers to how quickly it can sample and convert an analog signal into a
digital value. This is often measured in samples per second (SPS) or sample rate. For
example:
• An ADC with a sample rate of 1 kSPS (1 kilo-sample per second) will sample one signal
per millisecond.
• Some high-speed ADCs can reach millions of samples per second (MSPS).
Higher sampling speeds are essential in applications that require real-time processing of
fast-changing signals, such as in communications or high-frequency measurements.
6. How to Use ADC in Microcontrollers
1. Configuring the ADC in Microcontrollers
• In microcontrollers like Arduino, PIC, or STM32, the ADC is configured by selecting the
channel to be read (if the microcontroller has multiple channels) and setting the
sampling rate, resolution, and reference voltage.
2. Reading ADC Values
• After configuring the ADC, the microcontroller reads the digital value converted from
the analog input. For example:
• In Arduino, you can use the function analogRead(pin) to read the analog value from a
specific pin.
3. Filtering and Processing
• Sometimes the analog input may contain noise that can affect the conversion
accuracy. In such cases, digital filtering techniques, such as averaging or smoothing,
can be used to obtain more accurate results.
7. Applications of ADC in Microcontrollers
ADCs in microcontrollers are used in a wide variety of applications, including:
1. Sensor Interfaces
• Microcontrollers use ADCs to read analog signals from sensors, such as temperature
sensors (e.g., thermistors, thermocouples), light sensors (e.g., photoresistors), and
pressure sensors.
2. Voltage Measurement and Control
• ADCs are used to measure and control voltage in various systems, including power
monitoring systems and battery management systems.
3. Audio Systems
• In audio systems, such as microphones and sound recording devices, ADCs are used
to convert analog audio signals into digital data that can be processed or transmitted.
4. Medical Devices
• Medical devices like blood pressure monitors, heart rate sensors, and glucose meters
use ADCs to convert analog readings into digital values for monitoring and analysis.
8. Conclusion
An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is a fundamental component in microcontrollers,
enabling them to interact with the real world by converting analog signals into digital values.
Whether you are working on a simple project like reading data from a temperature sensor or
a more complex system involving audio or sensor data, the ADC plays a vital role in enabling
the microcontroller to process and respond to analog input.
Understanding how ADCs work, selecting the right resolution and speed, and properly
configuring them are essential skills when working with microcontrollers in various
embedded systems and IoT applications.
