S. P.

VACHHANI
CHAPTER 8

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Q.1. Discuss the states of matter.

The matter has three states: solid, liquid and gas (there is fourth state of matter also
known as plasma.)
Solids have definite volume and shape.
Liquids have definite volume but they do not have any shape of their own. A liquid
assumes the shape of a container in which it is filled.
Gases do not have volume or shape of their own.
It is not necessary that matter should exist in only one of these states under given
condition.
Matter is made up of molecules and molecules are made of atoms. An atom is made of a
nucleus containing positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons.
The electrons revolve round the nucleus in different orbits. Hence matter ultimately
consists of fundamental particles like electrons, protons and neutrons. It is observed that
protons and neutrons are also made of particles known as quarks.
Nuclear forces exerting among different nucleons (which is a collective name of a
neutrons and protons) are responsible for the structure of the nucleus. Electromagnetic force
operating between a pairs of electrons and the nucleus are responsible for the structure of an
atom.
The force prevailing among different atoms are responsible for the structure of
molecule and the forces prevailing among molecules are responsible for the structure of the
material.
Q.2. Write a note on elasticity.

It is an important mechanical property of materials. Such property is basically due to the

forces acting among its constituent particles and its crystal structure.
When external force is applied, the body may get deformed. Due to this, internal forces
are set up in the body which tries to restore the body in its original shape.
The extent to which the shape of body is restored when deforming force is removed depends
on the type of material.
The property to restore the natural shape or to oppose deformation is called elasticity.
If a body completely regains nets original shape after the removal of the deforming force, it is
called perfectly elastic body.
If body remains in the deformed state and does not even partially regain its original
shape after the removal of the deforming force, it is called perfectly inelastic body.
If on removing forming force, the substance partially regains the original shape, then
such substance is called partially elastic.
Q.3. What is strain? State the types of strain. Discuss longitudinal strain.
Strain: When external forces are applied on a solid, its length, volume or shape changes.
Corresponding to each of these changes, we define strain () of three different types: (i)
Longitudinal strain (ii) Volume strain (iii) Shearing strain

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Longitudinal strain
The fractional change in the length of a body a (rod or wire) by applying (deforming)
force on it is called longitudinal Strain.
Suppose the length of a wire or a rod is l and ∆l is the change in the length due to
application of external force then

l
Longitudinal strain 𝜀𝑙 
l

(The ratio of change in length of a rod

to its original length is called longitudinal
strain)

If the length of rod increases, the

corresponding longitudinal strain is called
tensile strain.

If the forces are applied in such a way that the length of a rod decreases, then the
corresponding strain is called compressive strain.
Q.4. Discuss volume strain and sharing strain.

Volume strain:
When a body is acted upon by the forces everywhere on its surface in the direction
perpendicular to the surface, the volume of the body changes.

The fractional change in the volume of a body is called volume strain.

Suppose volume of unstressed body is V and change in volume is V, then

∆𝑉
Volume strain 𝜀v =
𝑉

Shearing strain:

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Force acting on a cross-section of body tangential to the cross-section produces the

change in its shape. Change in the shape cannot be measured quantitatively unlike length and
volume.
Consider figure (a) in which a void with square cross-section is shown. Suppose the
forces of the same magnitude parallel to the surface AHGB, BGFC, DEFC and DAHE are
applied to it. The resultant of all these forces is zero as well as torque produced by these forces
is zero. Due to the couple of forces acting in mutually opposite directions, these faces are
displaced and deformation in the shape occurs.

Figure (b) shows magnified deformation of the plane ABCD for the sake of simplicity.
𝜋 𝜋
Due to such deformation, the angle AB and BC no more remain but it becomes − 𝜃 and
2 2
to measure this deformation we rotate A’B’C’D’ about an axis whereas perpendicular to its
plane such that its edge D’C’ coincided with its unreformed position DC.
Here sinθ is called sharing strain and if the value of  (radian) is small, sin   and is called
shearing strain 𝜀𝑠 .

𝑥
Shearing strain 𝜀𝑠 =
ℎ

Q.5. Define stress. State its unit and dimensions. State the types of stress.
When a body is deformed (means strain is produced in it), restoring force opposing it
arises in it.
The restoring force produced per unit cross-sectional area is (or the ratio of restoring
force to any cross-section to the area of that cross- section) called stress.

Force
Stress (𝜎) =
Area

𝑁
Unit of stress (𝜎) = 2
𝑚
Dimensional formula of stress= M1L-1T-2
Depending on the type of deformation, different stresses are:
(i) Longitudinal stress
(ii) Volume (or hydraulic) stress
(iii) Shearing stress
Q.6. Explain longitudinal stress.

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Consider a bar of uniform cross-sectional area A. the bar is subjected to two equal and
opposite forces F at its ends. Consider a section through the bar at right angle to its length
indicated by to broken line (fig A).Every part of the bar is in equilibrium under the effect of
these external forces. In this condition, the protrusion of the bar on both side of above
mentioned section. Pull this section in mutually opposite directions with the forces having the
same magnitudes.
When external force is applied on the bar, the intermolecular distance in it changes.
Hence the forces are so set up so that they tend to bring the molecules back to their original;
equilibrium position. Such forces are called Restoring forces and they are shown in figure.
The same restoring forces are distributed over different crow sectional area, consider the
cross-section at right angle to length and so the restoring forces perpendicular to the cross-
section. Such a stress is called normal stress. Since this stress is produced due to application of
tensile forces, it is also called a tensile stress.

As shown in figure, is bar is pushed at the two ends with equal and opposite forces, the
bar will be under compression. In such state the restoring forces produced are shown in figure
at some cross-section. In this case the longitudinal stress is called the compressive stress.
Figure shows that the restoring forces are produced in such a way that the both sides of section
push each other.
Q.7. Explain volume stress.

Suppose a body is acted upon by forces everywhere on its surface such that the force at
any point is normal to the surface and the magnitude of force on any small surface area is
proportional to area.
In this situation the volume of body changes and as a result volume strain is produced in
it. This situation arises when a small solid body is immersed in a fluid.
If the pressure at the location of the immersed solid is P, the force on any area A is PA,
directed perpendicular to the area. The force per unit area is called volume stress.

𝐹 𝑃𝐴
Volume stress 𝜎v = = = P
𝐴 𝐴

Hence volume stress is same as the pressure.

We can say that pressure is a specific type of stress due to which only volume of body
changes.
If there is a shearing stress at any point in a fluid, the fluid slips side wise so long as the
stress is maintained. That is, fluid cannot sustain shearing stress. Hence in fluid in equilibrium
the shear stress is zero.

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The force against any area within a fluid at rest and under pressure is normal to the area
regardless of the orientation of the area and this is the meaning of statement of Pascal’s law.
Q.8. Discuss the difference between pressure and stress.

Pressure is force per unit area.

Though the dimensions of pressure and stress are the
same, they are not the same quantity.

When the whole surface of body is acted upon by forces,

acting perpendicularly everywhere on it, the force per unit area
is called pressure.

Stress is also a force per unit area but it can be different

on different surface. Also it is not necessary that force should be
perpendicular to the surface. For example, there is stress on the
cross-section of a bar shown in fig (B), but there is no stress on
its sides.
Q.9. By drawing a graph of stress versus strain for a ductile metal, explain the relation
between longitudinal stress and longitudinal strain.

For a small deformation,

longitudinal stress is proportional to
longitudinal strain.

But if the deformation is large, the

relation between stress and strain becomes
more complicated and it depends on the
type of material under study.

Figure shows a graph of stress

versus strain for a ductile metal. Here
l
percentage strain  
 100  is shown.
 l 

In the initial portion of curve when strain is less than 1% (between 0 to a), the stress is
directly proportional to strain and in this portion Hooke’s law is obeyed and young modulus
can be defined in it. Here point a called the limit of proportionality.
Between a and b on the graph, stress and strain are not proportional and if the deforming force
is removed at any point between 0 and b the curve will be retraced and material will return to
its original length. Here material exhibit elastic behavior up to point b, which is called the
elastic limit.

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The strain increases between points b and c and when deforming force is removed at
some points between b and c the material traverse the path shown by dotted line and it
acquires c state in which permanent defect is produced.
When deforming force is increase further beyond c, it produces a large increase in
strain. Now in this state the material is said to undergo plastic deformation. In this state the
planes having maximum shearing strain slide over each other.
At point d the body gets fractured and hence it is called the fracture point. The stress
corresponding to point d is called breaking stress. If the large plastic deformation occur
between a and b the metal is said to be ductile.
If fracture occurs soon after the elastic limit is passed the metal is said to be brittle.
Q.10. Explain Hooke’s law.
Robert Hooke showed experimentally that for small deformations, the stress and strain
are proportional to each other. This is called Hooke’s law.
Thus,
stress ∝ strain
stress = k × strain
where k is constant of proportionality and it is known as modulus of elasticity.

Hooke’s law is an empirical law and is found to be valid for most materials. However,
there are some materials which do not exhibit this linear relationship.

Q.11. Define modulus of elasticity. Give its units and dimensions. What are different
types of moduli of elasticity?
The modulus of elasticity of a body is defined as the ratio of stress to the corresponding
strain within the elastic limit.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Modulus of elasticity E =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The SI unit of modulus of elasticity is Nm-2 and its dimensions are M1L-1T-2.
Corresponding to the three types of strain, we have three important moduli of elasticity:
(i) Young’s modulus(Y), that is, the modulus of elasticity of length.
(ii) Bulk modulus (B), that is, the modulus of elasticity of volume.
(iii) Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus (𝜂), that is, modulus of elasticity of shape.

Q.12. Define Young’s modulus of elasticity. Give its units and dimensions.

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain is called
Young’s modulus of the material of the wire.
Suppose a wire of length l cross sectional area A suffers an increase in length Δl under a
force F acting along its length l. Then Young’s modulus is given by

Longitudinal stress
Y =
Longitudinal strain
𝐹⁄
𝐴
= ∆𝑙⁄
𝑙
The SI unit of Young’s modulus is Nm-2 and its dimensions are M1L-1T-2.

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Q.13. What are elastomers? Explain the graph of stress versus strain for an elastomer.

The materials which can be stretched to large

values of strain, are called elastomers.

Figure shows a graph of stress versus strain for

vulcanized rubber. Note that the percentage strain
reaches up to 700%.

The elastic tissue of aorta (the large vessel

carrying blood from heart) is an elastomer in our body.

Features of graph:
(i) During no position of the curve, the stress is proportional to strain.
(ii) By removing deforming force, the object does not return to its original state following
same path.

The work done by the material in returning to its original shape is less than the work
required to deform it. It means that certain amount of energy is absorbed by the material and
this energy gets dissipated in the form of that. This effect is called elastic hysteresis.
Q.14. Explain bulk modulus of elasticity.

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain is called bulk
modulus of elasticity.
Consider a body of volume V and surface area A. suppose a force F acts uniformly over
the whole surface of the body and it decreases the volume by ΔV. Then bulk modulus of
elasticity is given by

Normal stress
B =
Volumetric strain

𝐹⁄ FV PV
𝐴
= - ∆𝑉⁄ =- = -
𝑉 A∆V ∆V
F
Where P( = ) is the normal pressure. Negative sign shows that the volume decreases
A
with the increase in stress.

The SI unit of bulk modulus is Nm-2 and its dimensions are M1L-1T-2.

The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called compressibility K. The unit of the
compressibility is N-1m2 and its dimensions are M-1L1T2.

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Q.15. Explain modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of tangential stress to shear strain is called modulus of
rigidity.

Tangential stress
Modulus of rigidity 𝜂 =
Shearing strain

𝐹 𝑥
But tangential stress = and shearing strain =
𝐴 ℎ

𝐹⁄ 𝐹ℎ
𝐴
 𝜂 = 𝑥⁄ =
ℎ 𝐴𝑥

Q.16. What is meant by elastic potential energy? Derive an

expression for the elastic potential energy of stretched wire.
When a wire is stretched, interatomic forces come into play which oppose the
change. Work has to be done against these restoring forces. The work done in stretching the
wire is stored in it as its elastic potential energy.

Suppose a force F applied on a wire of length l increases its length by Δl. Initially, the
internal restoring force in the wire is zero. When the length is increased by Δl, the internal
force increases from zero to F.

∴ Average internal force for an increase in length Δl of wire

0+𝐹 𝐹
= =
2 2
Work done on the wire is
W = average force × increase in length
𝐹
= × Δl
2
This work done is stored as elastic potential energy U in the wire.
1
∴ U = F × Δl
2
1
= stretching force × increase in length
2
Let A be the area of cross-section of the wire. Then
1𝐹 Δ𝑙
U= × × Al
2𝐴 𝑙

1
= stress × strain × volume of wire
2
Elastic potential energy per unit volume of the wire or elastic energy density is

𝑈
u=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

1
u= stress × strain
2

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But stress = Young’s modulus × strain
1
∴ u = Young’s modulus × strain2
2
Q. 17. Define Poisson’s ratio. Write expression for it.
When a wire is loaded, its length increases but its diameter decreases. The strain
produced in the direction of applied force is called longitudinal strain and that produced in the
perpendicular direction is called lateral strain.
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called
Poisson’s ratio.
Suppose the length of the loaded wire increases from l to l + Δl and its diameter
decreases from D to D – ΔD.
Δ𝑙
Longitudinal strain =
𝑙
Δ𝐷
Lateral strain = -
𝐷
Poisson’s ratio is
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Δ𝐷
−
𝐷
= Δ𝑙
𝑙

𝑙 Δ𝐷
= -
𝐷 Δ𝑙
The negative sign indicates that longitudinal and lateral strains are in opposite sense.
As the Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of two strains, it has no units and dimensions.

Q.18. How is the knowledge of elasticity is useful in selecting metal ropes used in cranes
for lifting heavy loads?
When a material is used for practical purposes, it will be in the condition of stress.
For example, cranes are used for lifting and moving heavy loads form one place to
other.
Cranes have a thick metal rope (cable) to which the load is attached. So cable is under
stress.The maximum load that a cable can carry or the maximum acceleration that can be
produced in the attached load should be such that the material of cable does not exceed the
elastic limit.
For example, suppose the magnitude of stress at elastic limit (for the material of cable)
is30 x 107 Nm2. If the cross-sectional area of the cable is ‘A’ and the load to be carried by it is
M then,
𝐹𝑛 𝑀𝑔
Longitudinal stress 𝜎𝑛 = =
𝐴 𝐴

𝑀𝑔
A=
𝜎𝑛

If M = 104 kg, taking g = 3.1𝜋 ms-2 , r = radius of cable

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𝑀𝑔
A=
𝜎𝑛

10 4  3.1
𝜋r2 =
30  10 7

 r = 10-2 m = 1 cm
Hence the cross-section A of the cable should be such that its value is much greater than
1cm .

Q.19. Explain why should the beams used in the construction of bridges have large depth
and small breadth. OR Explain why are girders given I shape.
A bridge has to be designed such that it can
withstand the load of flowing traffic, the force of
winds and its own weight.

Similarly in the design of building, use of

beams and column is very common and the beam
should not bend too much or break.

Consider the case of beam having

rectangular cross-section, loaded at the center and
supported near its and as shown in the figure.

A bar of length L, breadth b and thickness

d when loaded at the centre by a load (W) gets
depressed by an amount given by

𝑊𝐿3
𝛿 =
4𝑏𝑑3 𝑌

Here  is called bending of the beam.

From this equation we see that to reduce the bending of beam for a given load, we
should use a material of large Young’s modulus Y.

Moreover, for a given material, increasing the thickness d rather than breadth b is more
effective in reduction the bending because  is proportional to d-3 and only to b-1.
However a deep bar may have a tendency to buckle as shown in the figure.

To avoid this, a common compromise is the cross-sectional shape ( I ) as shown in the

figure. Such a section provides a large load bearing surface and enough depth to prevent
bending.

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Q.20. How can the knowledge of elasticity be used to estimate the maximum height of a
mountain on earth?

The maximum height of mountain on earth depends upon shear modulus of rock. At the
base of the mountain, the stress due to all the rock on the top should be less than the critical
shear stress at which the rock begins to flow. Suppose the height of the mountain is h and the
density of its rock is 𝜌. Then force per unit area at the base = h𝜌g. The material at the base
experiences this force per unit area in the vertical direction, but the sides of the mountain are
free. Hence there is a tangential shear of the order of h𝜌g. The elastic limit for a typical rock is
about 3×108 Nm-2 and its density is 3×103 kgm-3. Hence
hmax 𝜌g = 3×108

3×108 3×108
hmax = = = 10000m = 10 km.
𝜌g 3×103 ×9.8

This is nearly the height of the Mount Everest. A height greater than this, will not be
able to withstand the shearing stress due to the weight of the mountain.

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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS:

1. What are the constituent particles of an atom?

2. Draw the graph of inter atomic force versus inter-atomic distance.
3. Why does intermolecular potential energy and interatomic potential energy differ?
4. For two atoms or molecules, what do you mean by equilibrium distance?
5. What is elasticity?
6. What is the cause of the property of elasticity?
7. What do you mean by an inelastic or plastic body?
8. What do you mean by a partially elastic body?
9. What are the different strains produced on applying force on a body?
10. Define: Longitudinal strain, tensile strain and compressive strain.
11. What is the unit and dimensional formula for strain?
12. Write the expression for volume strain and explain the terms in it.
13. Define stress.
14. Give two differences between stress and pressure.
15. What do you mean by longitudinal and shearing stress?
16. Name two physical quantities having the dimensional formula M1L-1T-2.
17. Define volume (hydraulic) stress.
18. In a fluid in equilibrium, why is the shear stress zero everywhere?
19. What is meant by the statement of Pascal’s law “the pressure in a fluid is the same in all
directions”?
20. Give the statement of Hooke’s law.
21. What is Young’s modulus?
22. What is the relation between longitudinal stress and longitudinal strain?
23. What is the elastomer? Give an example.
24. What do you mean by elastic hysteresis?
25. Explain one application of elastic hysteresis in shock absorbers.
26. Define Bulk modulus.
27. What is compressibility? Write its unit and dimensional formula.
28. What can be done to prevent buckling?
29. Why are cross sections of a rail I shaped?
30. In our body, ________ is an elastomer.

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