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STATE HOUSE GIRLS’ HIGH SCHOOL

PHYSICS

TOPIC 17: Hooke’s Law

Specific Objectives

By the end of this topic, the you should be able to:  Solve numerical problems involving parallel and series
 State Hooke's law; assembly of springs;
 Verify Hooke's law experimentally;  Construct and calibrate a spring balance.
 Determine the spring constant of a spring;  State the factors affecting the spring constant of a
 Solve numerical problems involving Hooke's law; helical spring.

Stretching of Materials

The forces between molecules in a solid determine the charateristics stretching or elastic properties. When a solid is
stretched, the spaces between its molecules increase slightly, the tension felt in a streched rubber band is due to all
forces of attraction between the molecules in it. When a stretching is force is applied on a material, the material is said to
have undergone some king of deformation. There are two types of deformation Elastic deformation and Plastic deformation
Experiment: To investigate the stretching of spiral spring

The set up shows a experiment to investigate the

stretching of a spiral spring.

A spiral spring with a pointer attached is loaded with masses

each time noting the extension with which the spring
extends before loading the next. Care should be taken not
to use to heavy loads.

The masses are then unloaded one at time each time

noting the extension of the spring.

It is observed that so long as weights used are not too

heavy, the spring always returns to its original length. The
same result would be obtained if a straight steel wire is
stretched

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 When a graph of stretching force, F against extension, e is
drawn, the graph is a straight line through the origin.

The gradient of this line is a constant known as the spring

constant (or Force constant). It is a property of the
spring.
Stretching Force ( F )
Spring Cons tan t (k ) 
Extension(e)
F
k
e
SI units N / m
The relationship between the stretching force and extension
of a material is known as Hooke’ Law.
However When the stretching force is too big, the graph
obtained is not a straight line.
 Between O and E, the spring is said to obey Hooke’s
Law. This is because equal forces produce equal
extensions, that’s why the graph is a straight line. When
a material obeys Hooke’s law it is said to undergo Elastic
Deformation. Elastic Deformation is the kind of
deformation caused by a force in which the material goes
back to its original size and shape once the force is
withdrawn.
 Point E is called the Elastic Limit. This is where the
spring stops obeying Hooke’s law, i.e. Equal forces don’t
produce equal extensions. It is stated as a force or an
extension. It is a property of the spring. Beyond E the
spring does not obey Hooke’s Law
 Between points E and Y, the spring is said to undergo
plastic deformation. In this case it is still elastic but  Y is the Yield point where the spring stops being a
does not go back to its original length. After permanent spring, it loses it Helical spring shape
deformation, the springs length becomes the distance OS.
 Between Y and N, the spring has lost its spring shape. if
The dotted line represents the values of stretching force
the stretching force is increased further it breaks at point
and extension during unloading after permanent
B which is known as the breaking point.
deformation.

Hooke’s Law

Robert Hooke did a lot of research work on stretching of materials by performing various experiments from these
experiments he came up with Hooke’s Law which states that:
For a helical spring or other elastic material, the extension is directly proportional to the stretching force, provided the
elastic limit is not exceeded.

NB: Not all materials obey Hooke’s law, materials such as rubber only obey Hooke’s under certain conditions. Rubber materials obey
Hooke’s law depending on how fast the force is acting on it, it increased very fast it does obey Hooke’s law but if the force is gradually
increased it obeys Hooke’s law. https://www.wired.com/2012/08/do-rubber-bands-act-like-springs/

Spring Constant

From Hooke’s law, Examples

F e 1) A mass of 100 g is suspended from the lower end of a

spring. If the spring extends by 150 mm and the elastic
Therefore limit of the spring is not exceeded
a) What is the spring constant?
F  ke b) What will be extension of the spring when a force of
Where k is known as the spring constant and is the 0.5 N is applied on it?
gradient of the graph of force against extension. 2) A solid block of wood is suspended from the end of a
spring and extends it by 20 cm. A 100 g mass suspended
The spring constant is a measure of the stiffness of the from the same spring stretches it by 2 cm if the elastic
spring. The stiffer the spring the larger the spring limit is not exceeded

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 constant. A stiffer spring extends less than a less stiffer a) Find the weight of the solid block
one when the same stretching force is applied to both b) By what length will the spring stretch if amass of 4
kg is attached to its end?
(More examples from Class text)

Combination of Springs

Springs can be combined in two ways

a) In series
b) In parallel

a) Series Combination
When two identical springs are connected in series they are
connected such that each spring carries the load. In fact the
upper spring carries the lower spring and the load. See
diagram.

In this kind of connection the each of the spring extends by

a certain amount x hence the total extension is now double.

The spring constant is now less than when it was just one
spring, because the same force produces a larger
extension, i.e. it is less stiff.

Therefore the spring constant of a combination of the n

identical springs is calculated as
Spring cons tan t of one spring
SpringCons tan t of Springsin eries 
Number of Springs
K original
K series 
n
b) Parallel Combination

When two identical springs at connected in parallel they are

connected such that they share the load. See diagram.

In this kind of connection the each of the spring extends by

only half compared to when its carries the whole load, hence
the total extension is now only Half.

The spring constant is now more than when it was just one
spring, because the same force produces a smaller
extension, i.e. it is More stiff.

Therefore the spring constant of a combination of the n Examples

identical springs is calculated as. 1) Two identical springs each of length 6 cm and a spring
Spring Cons tan t Spring cons tan t of one Spring constant of 5 N/cm are combined in parallel, determine
of n   the total extension when a mass of 1.6 kg is suspended
on them.
Springsin Series Number of Springs
2) A copper wire of length 27.0 cm extends by 0.002 m
K series  nK original when a force of 60N is applied on it. What would the
extension be when the wire is 81.0 cm

Factors that Affect the Spring Constant (Stiffness of a spring)

These are some of the factors affecting the spring constant of a helical spring. Holding all others constant this is how each
affects the spring constant
 The Length: The longer the spring the less the spring constant its like having two springs in series
 The number of turns per unit length : i.e. a spring with more turns per unit length will stretch more than that
with less under the same force.
 The nature of material: Some materials are stiffer than others hence will produce springs of higher spring constants.

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  The diameter of the spring: A spring that has a bigger diameter will have a lower spring constant than that of
smaller diameter
 The diameter of wire making the spring: A spring made of thicker wire will have a lager spring constant than one
made of wire with a smaller diameter

Compressing a spring
When the ends of a spring are squeezed together, it shortens.
There is change in length. This is referred to are compression.
The spring on its part exerts a counter force which resists the
compression. The greater the compression force the shorter
the spring as shown in the graph. It obeys Hooke’s law.

If the compression force is strong enough soon all the coils of

the spring will be pressing onto one another and a further
increase in force will see no further shortening of the spring

Experiment: To investigate the sagging of a loaded beam

Spring Balance

Spring balances are used to measure weights of various

substances. They consist of a spiral spring and a scale
marked in new tons.
To construct a Spring balance a spiral spring is made from a
suitable wire e.g. nichrome wire. To calibrate it, the
extension of a stretching force is noted and the force
Constant calculated. A scale is then drawn and put alongside
the spring and a scale.

Revision Exercise 7 KLB

More Problems

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 STATE HOUSE GIRLS’ HIGH SCHOOL

PHYSICS

TOPIC 18: WAVES

Specific Objectives

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

 Define a wave;  Define amplitude (a), Wavelength (λ), Frequency (f),
 Types of waves; Periodic time (T);
 Describe the formation of pulses;  Define phase and phase difference (f);
 Describe the formation of waves;  Derive the relation
 Describe transverse wave; 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓;
 Describe longitudinal waves;  Solve problems involving
𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓.

waves:
A wave is the transmission of a disturbance that carries energy from one place to another in a medium.

A wave allows energy to be transferred from one point to another some distance away without any particles of the medium
travelling between the two points. This energy may be used to do some work if properly harnessed e.g. communication,
cooking production of electricity, ultra sound in hospitals. However, this energy can also be destructive e.g. tsunamis and
earthquakes.

The particles of the media do not move with the wave only the energy is transferred from one point of the media to another,
e.g. a ball floating on water will move up and down when a water wave travelling on the surface of water passes. The ball
does not move in the direction of the wave.

When energy is transferred by a wave from a vibrating source to a distant receiver, there is no transfer of matter between
the two points. The energy is carried by a disturbance in a medium, not by matter moving from one place to another within
the medium.

Types of waves
Waves may be classified according to:
1. Movement of the particles of the medium,
2. Mode in of transmission,
3. Progression from the source.

1. Movement of the particles of the medium

a) Transverse waves b) Longitudinal waves

In this wave the vibration of the particles is In this wave the vibration of the particles is parallel
perpendicular to the direction of the wave to the direction of the wave velocity
velocity.

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 Examples of transvers waves include water waves,
waves on a string, and electromagnetic waves Examples of longitudinal waves include sound waves
such as light waves radio waves and x rays

2. Medium of transmission

a) Electromagnetic waves
These are waves that do not require material medium for transmission. Examples are all the electromagnetic
waves like light, radio waves TV waves, radiant heat ultra violet, x rays and gamma rays. They can be transmitted
in a vacuum.

b) Mechanical waves
These are waves that require material medium for transmission of energy, They cannot be transmitted in a
vacuum. Mechanical waves can be transverse (water waves) or longitudinal (sound waves).

3. Progression of the source

a) Progressive waves
These are waves that move continually away from the source. They can be transverse or longitudinal. Water
waves are therefore progressive transverse waves while sound waves can be progressive longitudinal waves

b) Stationary waves or standing waves

This is a type of wave in which the wave profile does not move along the medium. It is formed when two equal
progressive waves travelling in opposite directions are superposed (superimposed) on each other.

Formation of pulses

A pulse is formed when single vibration or oscillation is sent

through a medium. A pulse can be transverse of longitudinal
in nature. (A vibration or an oscillation is a to and fro
movement.)
Oscillation is the movement of a body from its resting
place to the maximum distance it can cover on one side to
the maximum distance on the other side and back to its
resting place.
Vibration of a body is the movement of the body about its
mean position and can be linear, circular, periodic or non-
periodic.

If the pulse is repeated regularly (periodically). it forms a

wave train. A wave train is produced as result of
continuous vibrations at a constant rate in the
medium.

When the hand (source) is moved continuously up and

down or forward and backward, the particles of the slinky
(medium) also move up and down or forward and
backward. When the source is moved at regular intervals,
the disturbance is also produced at regular intervals
producing wave trains

For transvers waves the medium is distorted into repeated

patterns of crests and troughs. For longitudinal waves the
medium it set up it continuous patterns of compressions
and rarefactions.

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Characteristics of Waves (Wave Motion)

Consider a mass at rest at the end of a spring

If the mass is depressed slightly and released
it oscillated up and down some mean
position.

One complete oscillation (cycle) occurs when

the mass moves back to the mean position
while moving downwards. This produces 1
wave.

Below is a wave form showing the characteristics (nature) of a wave

Definitions of characteristics of waves

b) Amplitude (a)
a) Wavelength (λ)
It is the maximum displacement of particles of a medium
This is the distance between two successive crests or
from the mean (fixed) position either above or below. SI
troughs. SI unit Metre, m
unit Metre, m
c) Frequency (f)
This is the number of complete oscillations (or cycles)
made in one second. SI unit Hertz, Hz
d) Period (Periodic Time) (T)
Number of oscillations(Waves)
It is the time taken to complete one oscillation or cycle.
Frequecny  SI unit Second, s
Time taken, t
𝟏 𝟏
1Oscillation (1 wave) 𝐓= 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒇 =
f  𝒇 𝑻
Periodictime, T
1
f  Hertz, Hz
T
e) Displacement f) Oscillation or cycle
The distance from the mean position after any time during It is the one complete to and fro motion about a mean
an oscillation SI unit Metre m position
g) Velocity (V)
it is the distance moved by the crest or any point on the wave in one second SI unit Metre per second, m/s

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 h) Phase

 Phase is the position of a point (or particle) in time on

a waveform cycle.
 Particles in a motion that happen to be moving in the
same direction and at the same level of
displacement in their oscillation are said to be in
phase. It is measured in two ways in terms of
Wavelength or angles.
 When Measured in terms of wavelength it is referred to
as Path difference
 When Measured in terms of angles it is referred to as
Phase difference
 Particles are said to be out of phase when they are
moving in different direction or at the different
level of displacement.

The diagram below shows a wave form in terms of angles and wavelength

Examples of Phase and Phase difference

i. Phase difference of half a wavelength (or 180ͦ) ii. Two waves in phase
Two waves are said to be out of phase by 180ͦ () or The two waves are in phase since none leads the other
a path difference of half a wavelength (½ λ) when
one leads the other by half a wavelength

iii. Phase difference of 90ͦ (or path difference ¼ λ) iv. Phase Difference of 270ͦ (or Path difference )
This is because the second wave leads the first by quarter of This is because the second wave leads the first by three
wavelength quarters of a wavelength.

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v. Two waves can only be in phase if they have the same vi. Two waves with different amplitudes and the same
frequency. frequency may be in phase

Examples
State the Phase difference in terms of path difference and the phase angle

The wave Equation

The wave equation give the relationship between Speed, Wavelength and Frequency
EXAMPLES
Speed 
Dis tan ce 1) A slinky is made to vibrate in a transverse mode with a
time frequency of 14 Hz. If the distance between successive
A wave travelsa waveleghtin a period crests of the wave train is 0.2 m, calculate the speed of the
Speed 
Wavelegth waves along the slinky. (ans 2.8 m/s)
T 2) Waves on a spring are produced at the rate of 10
 wavelengths every two seconds

T a) Find the frequency of the wave motion. (ans 5 Hz)
1
but T  b) If the wavelength is 0.07 m, find the velocity of the
f
waves. (ans 0.35 m/s)
Therefore c) Find the period of the waves (ans 0.2 s)
Speed  f 3) A water wave travels 36 m in 12 s. if the frequency of the
v  f ....... This is the wave equation wave is 0.6 Hz calculate
a) The velocity of the wave (ans 3 m/s)
b) The wavelength of the wave (ans 0.5 m)

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4) A slinky is made to vibrate in the transverse mode with the frequency of 4 Hz. If the distance between successive crests of
the wave train is 0.7 m, calculate the speed of the speed of the waves along the slinky. (ans: 2.8 m/s)
5) Calculate the frequency of a wave if its speed is 30 m/s and the wavelength is 6 cm. (ans 5 Hz)
6) A source of frequency 256 Hz is set in to vibrations, calculate the wavelength of the waves produced, if the speed of sound is
332 m/s in air. (ans 1.30 m)
7) The speed of a certain wave in air is 3.0 × 108 m/s. the wavelength of that wave is 5 × 10-7 m. Calculate the frequency of
that wave (ans 6.0 × 1014 Hz)
8) A simple pendulum has aperiodic time of 2 s. What is the frequency?
9) A wheel of a car is rotating at 1200 revolutions per minute calculate its periodic time
10) Calculate the wavelength of a wave if the speed is 40 m/s and the frequency is 8 Hz.
11) Calculate the speed of the yellow color of light in air if the wavelength is 5.83 × 10-7 m and the frequency is 5.17 × 1014 Hz.
12) Radio waves travel with a speed of 3.0 × 108 m/s in air. If a broadcasting station broadcasts at a wavelength of 225 m,
calculate the frequency of the radio waves.
13) A hospital uses X-rays of wavelength 1.0 × 1019 Hz. Calculate the speed of X-rays if the frequency is 3.0 × 1019 Hz.
14) The speed of sound in air is 332 m/s. calculate the wavelength of sound if the frequency is 512 Hz.

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