Chapter - 2

Overview of Graphics Systems

 Video Display Devices
• Cathode-ray tubes
• Raster-scan displays
• Random-scan displays
• Color CRT displays
• Flat-panel displays
• Three-dimensional viewing devices
• Stereoscopic and virtual-reality systems
 Cathode-Ray Tubes(CRT)
• Beam of electrons directed from cathode (-)to phosphor-coated
screen (anode (+))
• A beam of electrons,emitted by the electron gun, passes through
focusing and deflection system, that direct the beam toward
specified positions on the screen.
• The tube is vacuum filled.
• Phosphor emits photon of light, when hit by an electron.
• Light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly, so the picture
has to be redrawn repeatedly after regular intervals. This type of
display is called Refresh CRT.
• Refresh rate (50-60 Hz / 72-76 Hz) to avoid flicker.
 Cathode-Ray Tubes

(from Donald Hearn and Pauline Baker)

 Cathode-Ray Tubes

(from Donald Hearn and Pauline Baker)

 Cathode-Ray Tubes(CRT)
• Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing current through a coil
of wire,called the filament,inside the cylindrical cathode structure.
• This causes electrons to be “boiled off” the hot cathode surface.
• Though there is vacuum inside the tube, the negatively charged
electrons are accelerated towards the positively charged screen.
• Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by setting voltage
levels on the control grid.
• High negative voltage applied to the control grid will shut off the
beam by repelling electrons and stopping them from passing
through the small hole at the end of the control grid.
• A very small negative voltage on the control grid decreases the
number of electrons passing through.
• Since the amount of light emitted by the phosphor coating depends
on the number of electrons striking the screen, we control the
brightness of the display by varying the voltage of the control grid.
 Cathode-Ray Tubes(CRT)
• Focusing system in a CRT is needed to force the electron beam to
converge into a small spot as it strikes the phosphor.
• Otherwise the electrons would repel each other and the beam
would spread out as it approaches the screen.
• Focusing system:
– Electrostatic focusing
– Magnetic focusing
• Electrostatic focusing is used in television and computer graphics
screens.
• Magnetic focusing is used to produce smallest spot size on the
screen.
• Also, as the distance of the screen corners from the focusing
system is more than it is for the central point, the beam has to
travel a larger distance to reach the corner.
• One possibility is to move the focusing system as per requirement.
 Cathode-Ray Tubes

(from Donald Hearn and Pauline Baker)

 Cathode-Ray Tubes
• Horizontal deflection and vertical deflection direct the electron
beam to any point on the screen.
• For deflection, two pair of magnetic coils are used, each pair
mounted in opposite direction outside the CRT.
• Horizontal plates control the vertical deflection and vertical plates
control the horizontal deflection coz the magnetic field acts in
perpendicular direction.
• When the electron beam strikes the screen, part of the energy is
converted by friction into heat, and the remainder is used to glow
the phosphor.
• After a short while, the excited phosphor electrons begin to drop
back to their stable state.
• The frequency of the light emitted by the phosphor is directly
proportional energy of the striking anode.
 Cathode-Ray Tubes
• Phosphors are differentiated from each other on the basis of their
persistence – how long they continue to emit light after a CRT
beam is removed.
• Persistence is also defined as the time it takes the emitted light
from the screen to decay to one-tenth of its original intensity.
• Lower persistence phosphors require higher refresh rates to
maintain a picture on the screen without flicker.
• Low persistence phosphor is useful for animation.
• High persistence phosphor is required for high quality static
images.
 Cathode-Ray Tubes
• Resolution – the maximum number of points that can be
displayed without overlap on a CRT is referred to as resolution.
• A more precise definition of resolution is the number of points per
centimeter that can be plotted horizontally and vertically.
Although it is often stated as the total number of points in each
direction.
• Resolution of CRT is dependent on the type of phosphor, intensity
to be displayed, and focusing and deflection system.
• Typical resolution on high-quality systems is 1280 by 1024.
• Even higher resolution CRTs are available and called
high-definition systems.
• The physical size of the graphics monitor is given as the length of
the screen diagonal.
 Cathode-Ray Tubes
• Another property associated with video monitors is Aspect Ratio.
• Aspect ratio is the ratio of horizontal pixels to vertical pixels for
an equal length line.
• Example – an aspect ratio of 3/4 means that a vertical line plotted
with 3 points has the same length as horizontal line plotted with 4
points.
 Raster-Scan Displays
• Video displays can be either raster-scan or random-scan displays.
• Raster-scan display is the most common type of monitor using a
CRT.
• The electron beam scans the screen from top to bottom one row at
a time. Each row is called a scan line.
• The electron beam is turned on and off to produce a collection of
dots painted one row at a time. These will form the image.
• Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the refresh
buffer or frame buffer.
• Refresh buffer stores the intensity value for each screen point.
• Each screen point is referred to as a pixel.
 Raster-scan Displays

(from Donald Hearn and Pauline Baker)

 Raster-Scan Displays
• In a monochrome system, each bit is 1 or 0 for the corresponding
pixel to be on or off (bitmap).
• The display processor scans the frame buffer to turn electron
beam on/off depending if the bit is 1 or 0.
• For color monitors, the frame buffer also contains the color of
each pixel (color buffer) as well as other characteristics of the
image(brightness…)
• Thus in color monitors, more bits are required per pixel.
• In high quality systems, up to 24bits per pixel are maintained.
• On black-and-white system with one bit per pixel, the frame
buffer is called a bitmap.
• On colored systems, multiple bits are maintained per pixel, the
frame buffer is called pixmap.
 Raster-Scan Displays
• Refresh rate: 60-80 frames per second to avoid flicker.
• Refresh procedure:
– Horizontal retrace – beam returns to left of screen after
completion of one scan line.
– Vertical retrace – bean returns to top left corner of screen
after completion of entire frame buffer.
– Interlaced refresh – display first even-numbered scan lines,
then odd-numbered scan lines.
 Random-Scan Displays
• Random scan systems are also called vector, stroke-writing, or
calligraphic displays.
• The electron beam directly draws the picture one line at a time in
any specified order.
• The electron beam is directed to only parts of the screen.
• Picture is stored as a set of line drawing commands, in a refresh
display file.
• Refresh display file is also called display list, or vector file, or
display program or simply the refresh buffer.
• After all commands of display file are executed, system starts all
over again to refresh the screen.
• Refreshes by scanning the list 30 to 60 times per second.
• More suited for line-drawing applications such as architecture and
manufacturing.
 Random-Scan Displays
• Since picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing
instructions and not as a set of intensity values for all screen
points (raster-scan), random-scan display needs less memory
space.
• Also random scan produces smooth line drawing since the beam
follows the line path.
In raster-scan systems, though exact values are given, jagged lines
are formed at times.
• So, random-scan display has higher quality than raster scan
systems.
 Color CRT Monitor
• Uses different phosphors, a combination of Red, Green, and Blue,
to produce any color.
• Two methods:
– Beam Penetration
– Shadow Mask
• Beam Penetration
– Used by Random scan monitors.
– 2 layers (Red, Green) phosphors;
– Low speed electrons excite Red phosphor,
– High speed electrons excite Green,
– Intermediate speed excite both to get yellow and orange.
– Color is controlled by electron beam voltage.
– Only produces a restricted set of colors.
 Color CRT Monitor
• Shadow mask
– Used by Raster scan systems.
– Each pixel on the screen has three phosphor dots of three
colors – red, blue, green (RGB model)
– Three electron guns, one for each phosphor.
– Color is produced by adjusting the intensity level of each
electron beam.
– Produces a wide range of colors.
– Two methods
• Delta-delta method
• In-line method
 Color CRT Monitor

(from Donald Hearn and Pauline Baker)

 Color CRT Monitor
• In delta-delta method, the three phosphors are arranged as a
triangle on the screen fro each pixel.
• Three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group on the
shadow mask, which contain holes, aligned with the phosphor-dot
pattern.
• When the three beams pass through the hole of the shadow mask,
they activate the dot triangle.
• The phosphor dots on the screen are so arranged that each
electron beam activates only its corresponding color dot.
• For in-line arrangement, the three electron guns, and the
corresponding red-blue-green colored phosphors are arranged in
one line, rather than a delta shape.
• Its easy to maintain the alignment in in-line arrangement than in
delta-delta arrangement.
 Color CRT Monitor
R G B color
000 black
001 blue
010 green
011 cyan
100 red
101 magenta
110 yellow
111 white

Color CRT’s are designed as RGB monitors also called full-color

system or true-color system.
 Flat Panel Displays
• Flat panel displays are video devices that are thinner, lighter, and
require less power than CRT’s.
• Examples: wall frames, pocket notepads, laptop computer screen.
• Two categories:
– Emissive Display
– Non-emissive Display
• Emissive displays convert electrical energy into light.
• Example of emissive display - plasma panels, light-emitting
diodes.
• Non-emissive displays convert light into graphics using optical
effects, Example – Liquid Crystal Device (LCD).
Flat Panel Displays – Plasma Panels
• A mixture of gases between two plates(usually neon)
• Vertical conducting ribbons are placed on one glass plate, and
horizontal conducting ribbons are placed on the other plate.
• Voltage is applied to the two ribbons to transform gas into
glowing plasma of electrons and ions.
• Firing voltages on the horizontal and vertical conductors cause
the gas at the intersection to break down into glowing plasma of
electrons.
• Also called gas-discharge displays.
• Picture is stored in frame buffer and refreshed at 60frames per
second.
• Disadvantage – works for monochromatic devices.
 Flat Panel Displays

(from Donald Hearn and Pauline Baker)

 Thin-film Electroluminescent Displays
• Similar to plasma panel, except that the region between the plates
is filled with phosphor instead of gas.
• Voltage applied between the plates moves electrons to the
phosphor atoms that release photons of light.
 Flat Panel Displays

(from Donald Hearn and Pauline Baker)

 Light-emitting Diode (LED)

• A matrix of diodes, one per pixel.

• Apply voltage stored in the refresh buffer.
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
• LCD screens are often used in small devices such as calculators
and laptop monitors.
• Non-emissive.
• Picture produced by passing polarized light from a light source
through liquid-crystal material.
• Liquid-crystal material contains crystals within a liquid.
• Nematic (thread-like) liquid-crystals have rod shape that can
either align to with the light direction.
• Panel made of rows of horizontal, transparent conductors.
• Apply voltage to two ribbons to make plasma glow.
 Flat Panel Displays

(from Donald Hearn and Pauline Baker)

 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
• Passive matrix LCD
– Refresh buffer is used.
– Screen refreshed at 60 frames per second.
• Active matrix LCD
– transistor stored at each pixel.
– Prevents charge from leaking out of liquid-crystals.
 Stereoscopic & Virtual-Reality Systems
• A technique for the display of 3D scenes.
• Not true 3D images, but provides a 3D effect.
• Uses two views of a scene along the lines of right and left eye.
• Gives perception of a scene depth when right view is seen from
right eye and left scene is seen from left eye (stereoscopic effect).
• Display each view at alternate refresh cycles.
• Interactive Virtual Reality
– Headset generates stereoscopic views.
– Input devices (gloves, helmet, …) capture motion.
– Sensing system in headset tracks user’s position.
 Input Devices
• Keyboards, button boxes, dials
• Mouse devices
• Trackballs and space balls
• Joysticks
• Data gloves
• Digitizers
• Image scanners
• Touch panels
• Light pens
• Voice systems
 Input Devices
• Keyboards, button boxes, dials
– Standard keyboard
• Alphanumeric keys
• Function keys
• Cursor keys
– Button box
• Set of input dials
 Input Devices
• Mouse devices
– Mechanical mouse
• One-button
• Rotating ball
• Two perpendicular shafts to capture rotation
– Optical mouse
• Optical sensor
• Laser
• Grid to detect movement
– Added widgets
• Buttons
• Trackball
• Thumbwheel.
 Input Devices
• Z mouse
– Thumbwheel on the side
– Trackball on the top
– Standard mouse-ball underneath.
• Trackball
– A ball device that can be rotated with the fingers or
palm of hand.
• Spaceball
– Six degrees of freedom
– Does not move, detects strain placed on the ball by
trying to move it.
 Input Devices
• Joystick
– A small, vertical lever mounted on a base.
– Movable joystick measures motion.
– Stationary (isometric) joystick measures strain.
• Data glove
– Used to grasp a virtual object.
– Measures hand and finger position.
– Can also be used as input device to detect surface.
 Input Devices
• Digitizers
– Used for drawing, painting, or selecting positions.
– Graphics tablet used to input 2D coordinates by activating
a hand cursor or stylus at given positions on a flat surface.
– Used to trace contours, select precise coordinate positions
• Hand held cursor
• Stylus
 Input Devices

• Image scanners
– Used to store images on a computer.
– Types:
• Hand held.
• Flatbed
• Drum.
 Input Devices
• Touch panels
– Select objects by the touch of a finger
– Optical
• Line of infrared light-emitting diodes (LED) along vertical and
horizontal edges
• Interrupted when panel is touched
– Electrical
• Two transparent plates of material, one conducting, the other resistive
• Touch brings the plates to be in contact with one another, causing a
voltage drop
• Measure the voltage drop
– Acoustical.
 Input Devices
• Light pens
– Pen-shaped device to select screen positions by
detecting lights coming from points on the CRT
screen
– Used to capture position of an object or select
menu options.
 Input Devices
• Voice systems
– Speech recognition systems to recognize voice
commands
– Used to activate menu options or to enter data
– Uses a dictionary from a particular user
(learning system).
 Hard-copy Devices
• Hard-copy devices
– Plotters
• 2D moving pen with stationary paper
• 1D pen and 1D moving paper
– Printers
• Impact devices
– Inked ribbon
• Non impact devices
– Laser, ink-jet, xerographic, electrostatic, electrothermal.