SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY

AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
BASIC OVERVIEW OF SOIL
Concepts Covered:

 What is soil?

 Branches of soil science

 Functions of soil

 Composition of soil: basic overview

Soil : Definition
The unconsolidated cover of the earth, made up of mineral
and organic components, water and air and capable of
supporting plant growth.
Branches of Soil Science
 Pedology
 Soil Chemistry
 Soil Physics
 Soil biology and biochemistry
 Soil fertility
 Soil mineralogy
 Soils and environment quality
 …
 …
Pedology
The study of soils as naturally
occurring phenomena is called
pedology
(Greek pedon, meaning soil or earth).

Pedology takes into account:

• factors and processes of soil formation

• soil features and classifications
• distribution of soil types www.agribusinesscshool.nz
Soil Functions
1. Medium for plant growth or bio-materials production
2. Habitat for soil organisms, making up more than half of all "life"
on the planet
3. Biochemical or Nutrient Reactor which absorbs, releases (i.e.,
desorbs), and transforms inorganic and biochemical compounds
such as essential plant nutrients, pesticides, minerals, heavy
metals, and numerous other compounds
4. Hydrologic Buffer which stores (i.e., water holding capacity) and
regulates the flow (i.e., drainage) of water in the landscape
5. Foundation for the physical support of structures including
everything from plants to skyscrapers
Soil Components
Soil Pores

Air 25% Mineral

Matter 45%

Water
25%

Organic Matter
5%
Soil Components
Soil is an interphase between the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere and biosphere

P.C: Antonio Jordán

Soil Mineral Matter Fractions

Source: Ohio EPA

 Soil Mineral Matter Fractions
Soil fraction Diameter Feeling

Gravel >2 mm Coarse

Sand 0.05 - 2 mm Gritty

Silt 0.002 – 0.05 Floury

mm

Clay <0.002 mm Sticky when

wet

Source: soils4teachers.org
Soil Mineral Matter Fractions

Source: Brady and Weil

Soil Organic Matter: Composition

P.C: Ray R. Weil

Soil Organic Matter

P.C: Ray R. Weil

Colloidal Properties
 Clay particles are the smallest mineral particles (<0.002 mm)
 Adhere together to form a sticky mass when wet and hard
clods when dry
 The smaller particles (<0.001 mm) of clay (and similar-sized
organic particles) have colloidal properties
 Colloidal systems are two-phase systems in which very small
particles of one substance are dispersed in a medium of a
different substance
 Milk and blood are other examples of colloidal systems in
which very small solid particles are dispersed in a liquid
medium
Essentiality of Mineral Nutrients (Arnon &
Stout, 1939)
1. A given plant must be unable to complete its life cycle in the
absence of the mineral element
2. The function of the element must not be replaceable by
another mineral element
3. The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism –
for example as a cofactor of an enzyme
Plant Nutrients (Essential Elements)

Source: Brady and Weil

Soil Water
 The soil moisture regime is a major determinant of the productivity
of terrestrial ecosystems
Why soil water different from a glass of water?
i. Water is held within soil pores where the attraction between water and the
surfaces of soil particles greatly restricts the ability of water to flow as it would
flow in a drinking glass
ii. Because soil water is never pure water, but contains hundreds of dissolved
organic and inorganic substances, it may be more accurately called the soil
solution.
iii. An important function of the soil solution is to serve as a constantly
replenished, dilute nutrient solution bringing dissolved nutrient elements (e.g.,
calcium, potassium, nitrogen, and phosphorus) to plant roots
Soil Solution
• Contains small but significant quantities of soluble organic and inorganic
substances, including the plant nutrients
• Clay and humus release nutrient elements to the soil solution from which
they are taken up by plant roots
• The soil solution tends to resist changes in its composition even when
compounds are added or removed from the soil. This ability to resist
change is termed the soil buffering capacity
Soil Acidity and Alkalinity
H2O = H+ + OH-

Kw = [H+][OH-] = 10-14

Diagram courtesy of N. C. Brady

Soil Acidity and Alkalinity

extension.umd.edu
Soil Aeration
 Ventilation of soil allowing gases to be exchanged with atmosphere

 Gas is exchanged by:

 Mass flow: air forced in by wind or pressure

 Diffusion: gas moves back and forth from soil to atmosphere acc.

to pressure
Soil Air
• Differs from atmospheric air
• The composition of soil air varies greatly from place to place in the soil.
• Soil air generally has a higher moisture content than the atmosphere; the
relative humidity of soil air approaches 100% unless the soil is very dry.
Reference:
 The Nature and Properties of Soils by Nyle C. Brady
and Ray R. Weil
 SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY
AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
WEATHERING AND SOIL FORMATION
Concepts Covered:

 How is soil formed?

 What is weathering?

 Types of weathering

 Factors affecting soil formation

Soil Formation Process
• Weathering
• Physical, chemical and biological
• Soil Pedogenesis
• Additions, losses, transformation, translocation
Weathering : definition
Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rocks at
earth’s surface, by the action of physical, chemical and biological
activities

Involves both destruction and synthesis

Precursors of pedogenesis
Soil formation: overview

http://www.civileblog.com
Rocks- a quick recap!

• Magma: molten rock

• Igneous : cold, solid magma
• Sedimentary: materials deposited from suspension or precipitated from
solution
• Metamorphic: rocks changed by heat and pressure
Types of rocks

Frans Lanting Peter Arnold, Inc./Alamy Cuboimges SRL/Alamy

Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks

Weathering
 Slate rock (1798) on the left –
resistant to weathering
 Marble rock (1875) in the right –
susceptible to weathering

Ray R. Weil
Types of weathering
Temperature
driven
Water/ice/wind
Physical
driven

Weathering
Plant/animal
driven

Hydration

Hydrolysis Biological

Dissolution
Chemical
Acid reactions

Oxidation-
reduction

Complexation
Physical/Mechanical weathering (disintegration)
No change in chemical composition--just disintegration into smaller pieces
Chemical weathering (decomposition)
Breakdown as a result of chemical reactions

CaCO3+CO2+H2O ---> Ca2+ + 2HCO3-

Physical/Mechanical weathering (disintegration)
Physical breakup
• pressure release
• water: freeze - thaw cycles
• crystallization of salt in cracks
• thermal expansion and contraction

All this increases the total surface area exposed to weathering processes.
 Physical/Mechanical weathering (disintegration)
• What causes Mechanical Weathering?
• Temperature:
• Rocks expand/contract (cycle).
• Causes exfoliation (flaking)
• Frost wedging:
• Water seeps into small cracks, freezes and expands, which enlarges cracks. (cracks in sidewalk,
potholes in road)
• Organic Activity: (caused by living things)
• Plant roots can loosen rock, make cracks larger (grass in sidewalk)called root-pry
• Abrasion: wearing away of rocks by particles carried by wind, water, etc.
• Rough edges of particles ‘scrape’ off parts of rocks.
• Rocks in a riverbed are scraped by moving objects in the water
they become smooth
Physical/Mechanical weathering (disintegration)

Ray R. Weil https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Water driven Ice driven

Physical/Mechanical weathering (disintegration)

http://uregina.ca
Exfoliated Domes, Yosemite gis.ess.washington.edu

Exfoliation
Physical/Mechanical weathering (disintegration)

Frost Wedging Frost Wedging

 Physical/Mechanical weathering (disintegration)
• Thermal expansion due to the
extreme range of temperatures can
shatter rocks in desert environments

• Repeated swelling and shrinking of

minerals with different expansion
rates will also shatter rocks

gis.ess.washington.edu
 Role of physical weathering (disintegration)
1) Reduces rock material to
smaller fragments that
are easier to transport

2) Increases the exposed

surface area of rock,
making it more
vulnerable to further
physical and chemical
weathering
 Rate of physical weathering (disintegration)
Joints in a rock are a
pathway for water – they
can enhance mechanical
weathering
Chemical weathering (decomposition)
Transformation/decomposition of one mineral into another

Mineral breakdown
• carbonate dissolves
• primary minerals --> secondary minerals (mostly clays)
Chemical weathering

Hydration: attachment of water molecules to crystalline structure

of a rock, causing expansion and weakness
Chemical weathering

Hydrolysis: combination of hydrogen and oxygen in water with rock

to form new substances
 Chemical weathering

Dissolution: process by which rock is dissolved in water

• Strongly influenced by pH and temperature

• When water becomes saturated, chemicals may
precipitate out forming evaporite deposits
• Calcium carbonate (calcite, limestone), sodium chloride
(salt), and calcium sulfate (gypsum) are particularly
vulnerable to solution weathering
Chemical weathering

Acid reactions/Carbonation

+ H2CO3 (acid)
Chemical weathering

Acid reactions/Carbonation

+ H2CO3 (acid)
Chemical weathering

Oxidation-Reduction

Complexation
Resistance to weathering
First to
Fast
Crystallize
Weathering

Bowen’s
Goldrich
Reaction
Stability
Series
Series

Last to
Crystallize Slow
Weathering
 Biological weathering
Can be both chemical and
mechanical in nature.

• roots split rocks apart

• roots produce acids

that dissolve rocks.

• tree throw https://sciencing.com/biological-weathering-5633317.html

• burrowing animals
 Stability and weathering of soil minerals

The relative resistance of a mineral to

weathering processes is determined by its
internal structure

Depends on the strength of the atoms or ions

binding their neighboring ions in the crystal
lattice of the mineral

Four major types of binding forces between

atoms in crystals: ionic, homopolar, metallic,
and van der Waals forces.

The bonds in the crystal structure of soil

minerals are considered to be mostly ionic
 Stability and weathering of soil minerals

The major coordination polyhedra in soils are

Al-octahedra and Si-tetrahedra

Share crystal edges, faces, or vertices (points

of intersects).
Edge and face sharing reduce the distance
between the ions in the polyhedron, and
hence increase repulsion between ions with
similar charges  destabilize the crystal
structure

A major force for destabilization of an ionic

crystal is considered the Coulombic repulsion
force between cations
 Weathering
• Climate
• Temperature and moisture characteristics
• Chemical weathering
• Most effective in areas of warm, moist climates –
decaying vegetation creates acids that enhance
weathering
• Least effective in polar regions (water is locked up as
ice) and arid regions (little water)

• Mechanical weathering
• Enhanced where there are frequent freeze-thaw cycles
Pathways of weathering
Weathering at a glance
 Soil formation
Soil formation is brought about
by four basic pedogenic processes
Additions
Losses
Transformations
Translocations
Ray R. Weil
Additions

Input of materials to the developing soil profiles from outside

sources
Rain adds water
Dust adds minerals
Animals add nutrients and
organic matter
Humans add fertilizers
Evaporation of groundwater
adds salts
https://gardeningandhome.com/fallen-leaves-garden-gold-not-enemy/
Losses

Evaporation carries away water

Erosion carries away soil particles
Organic matter decomposes
Nutrients and minerals leach
© Frederick J. Weyerhaeuser / WWF-Canon Carla staver

Clemson university
Transformations

Process of modification and/or destruction of existing soil

components
Results in synthesis of new products
Weathering synthesizes secondary minerals from primary
Weathering alters size of minerals
Dead leaves transform to humus
Translocations

Horizontal or vertical movement of materials

Water translocated by gravity or capillary action
Evaporation translocates salts to surface
Organisms carry materials from one place to another

Igualdad Animal | Animal Equalit

Factors affecting soil formation processes

Similar environmental conditions yield similar soils

clorpt equation of soil formation developed by Jenny, 1941

Si = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑜𝑜, 𝑟𝑟, 𝑝𝑝, 𝑡𝑡)

where Si = soil property, cl = climate, o = organisms, r = relief,
p = parent, materials, t = time
Factors affecting soil formation

CLimate Okea/Fotolia

Organism The soil we see is a function

of five factors

Relief

Parent material

Time
Factors affecting soil formation

The factors themselves act interdependently on soil

Sometimes however, one particular factor predominates, others
being constant
Dominating factor Soil type
Climate Climosequence
Organism Biosequence
Relief Toposequence
Parent material Lithosequence
Time Chronosequence
Toposequence
Adjacent soils that
show differing
profile
characteristics
reflecting the
influence of local
topography are
called
toposequences.
Paweł Sowiński
Climate - precipitation

Most influential factor – affects weathering

Effective precipitation and temperature - two major climate factors
Excess low
rainfall rainfall

Excess Excess
leaching evaporation

Well Salt
weathered deposited
soils soils
 Climate - precipitation

https://www.tankonyvtar.hu

A highly leached podzol Salt affected arid soils

 Climate - precipitation
(a) Seasonal rainfall distribution (c) Site topography
Keeping other factors
constant, increasing
precipitation increases
clay, organic matter
content and acidity

Ray R.Weil

(b) Evaporative demand (d) Soil permeability

Regolith
A region of loose unconsolidated rock and
dust that sits atop a layer of bedrock
Climate - temperature

Microbial activity is enhanced at high temperatures

microbes
High temperatures + high effective rainfall high weathering

N.C Brady
Organisms

Microbes enhance biochemical weathering

Vegetative cover reduces erosion
Dead leaves accumulate Al and Fe
Vegetation influences the soil type and vice versa
Organisms - vegetation

Ray R. Weil Ray R. Weil

Organisms - animals

Ray R. Weil https://www.no-tillfarmer.com

 Pedoturbation – mixing activities of animals

 Enhances weathering
Topography

Topography – configuration of land surface in terms of elevation, slope and

landscape position
Forest grassland

Ray R. Weil
Topography

Depressed areas experience high weathering

South facing slopes tend to be warmer, hence more weathering
Low lying arid areas have high salt buildup
Parent materials

Soils greatly resemble their parent material

Eg: sandy soils often develop from granite or sandstone
The mineralogical composition of parent materials influence the
physical and chemical weathering.
Types of parent materials
Parent materials are classified based on their mode of placement in
their current location

N.C. Brady and Ray R.Weil

Types of parent material
Ray R. Weil http://aptprocessing.com

Ray R. Weil

Colluvial parent material Flood plains Alluvial fans

Types of parent materials
Ray R. Weil

Glacial till Loess

Time
 Younger soils tend to have properties of their
parent material
 As they age, they tend to change, sometimes,
to a different soil type

Ray R.Weil
Summary of soil forming factors

Monger and Bestelmyer (2006)

Soil Profile:
• Five soil forming factors cause
different set of layers
(horizons).
• Each soil is characterized by a
given sequence of these
horizons.
• A vertical exposure of this
sequence is termed a soil
profile.

pinterest.com
The Master horizons and layers:
• Six master soil horizons are
commonly recognized and are
designated using the capital
letters
• O, A, E, B, C, and R.
• Subhorizon horizons may occur
within a master horizon these
are designated by lowercase
letters following the capital
master horizon letter
• e.g., Bt, Ap, or Oi
O Horizon:

• Organic horizon.
• Found above the mineral soil.
• Occur in an organic soil profile.
• Commonly referred to as the forest floor.
• Often has three subhorizons:
1. Oi horizon - fibric materials—
recognizable plant and animal parts.
2. Oe horizon - hemic materials—finely
fragmented residues intermediately
decomposed.
3. Oa horizon - sapric materials—highly
decomposed, smooth, amorphous
residues.
A Horizon:

• The topmost mineral horizons.

• Generally contain enough partially
decomposed organic matter
• Soil color is darker than that of the
lower horizons.
E horizon:
• Zones of maximum leaching or
eluviation of clay, iron, and aluminum
oxides.
• Leaves a concentration of resistant
minerals, such as quartz, in the sand and
silt sizes.
• Usually found underneath the A horizon
and in forest soil, directly under O
horizon.
• Generally lighter in color than both the
A horizon above it and the horizon
below.
B horizon:
• B horizons form below an O, A, or E horizon.
• Materials have accumulated, typically by
washing in from the horizons above, a process
termed illuviation.
• Maximum accumulation of materials such as
iron and aluminum oxides and silicate clays (Bt
horizons)- In humid region.
• Calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate may
accumulate in the B horizon (giving Bk and By
horizons, respectively)- In arid and semi-arid
region.
C horizon:

• Unconsolidated material underlying

the solum (A and B horizons).
• May or may not be the same as the
parent material from which the
solum formed.
• C horizon material that retains some
of the structural features of the
parent rock or geologic deposits
from which it formed is termed C
saprolite Horizon
R horizon:

• Consolidated rock.
• Little evidence of weathering
Subdivisions Within Master Horizons

• Often distinctive layers exist within a given

master horizon.
• These are indicated by a numeral following
the letter designation.
• Three different combinations of structure
and colors can be seen in the B horizon,
then the profile may include a sequence
such as B1–B2–B3
Transition Horizons:

• Transitional layers between the master horizons (O, A, E, B, and C) may be

dominated by properties of one horizon but also have characteristics of
another.
• Written as AE, EB, BE.
• E/B when distinct parts of the horizon have properties of E while other parts
have properties of B.
Subhorizon Distinctions:

• Since the capital letter designates the nature of a master horizon in only a
very general way, specific horizon characteristics may be indicated by a
lowercase letter following the master horizon designation.
• E.g., Oi – O horizon with slightly decomposed organic matter.
Reference:
 The Nature and Properties of Soils by Nyle C. Brady
and Ray R. Weil