SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY

AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
SOIL EROSION AND LAND DEGRADATION
Concepts Covered:

Land degradation and its processes

Soil erosion and its types

Water erosion of soil and its control

Land degradation

Soil erosion – soil to sediment

Land degradation – reduction in the
capacity of land to provide
ecosystem goods and perform
functions and services that support
society and nature
Caused by desertification, over
Ray R. Weil
grazing, deforestation and
inappropriate agricultural practices
Land degradation by continent

• Europe’s land is
most degraded
because of its long
history of intensive
agriculture.

• But Asia’s and

Africa’s soils are
fast becoming
degraded.
Downward spiral of land degradation

Ray R. Weil
 Major types of soil degradation

Physical Biological Chemical

• Soil erosion by water • Loss of soil biological • Nutrient depletion

• Soil erosion by wind diversity • Salinization
• Soil erosion by tillage • Depletion of soil • Alkalization
• Soil compaction organic matter • Acidification
• Reduced water storage • Loss of plant, animal • Toxic contamination
capacity and microbial biomass
Soil erosion

• Erosion is the movement of

weathered rocks and soil particles
from one place to another
 Geological erosion vs accelerated erosion
Geological erosion
Natural erosion of soil without human influence
New soils form at a higher rate than the rate of
erosion, thereby balanced
Depends on rainfall and type of regolith
Accelerated erosion
Geological erosion accelerated by human influence
like overgrazing, deforestation, tillage etc
Soil is eroded at a faster rate than new soil Ray R. Weil

formation, exposing deeper layers

Impacts of soil erosion

On-site damages
Loss of topsoil and associated essential nutrients and organic matter
Spread of diseases from higher to lower areas
Uprooting of trees and seedlings
Reduced infiltration, increased run-off and further erosion
Overall soil productivity is greatly reduced
Impacts of soil erosion

Off-site damages
Sediments – causes turbidity, eutrophication and raises levels of rivers causing
flooding

Ray R. Weil
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service

Wind blown particles affects fruits and foliage, increases maintenance and
cleaning costs, causes health hazards
Eutrophication

When lakes, streams

and estuaries are over
fertilized, excessive
production of aquatic
organic matter can
become a water quality
problem and as a result
the eutrophication
process can be
enhanced!
Soil-loss tolerance value, T

Devised by USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service

T value is the maximum amount of soil that can be loss through erosion in a
particular year without affecting its long term productivity
For most agricultural soils in US, T value = 11 Mg/ha .
At this rate, loss of soil and formation of new soil are in equilibrium over a
period of 200 years
Mechanics of water erosion
 Splashing effect of raindrop erodes soil
(detachment)
 The floods then carry the eroded particles
downstream (transport)
 It is deposited downstream (deposition)

Ray R.Weil, US Navy

 Types of water erosion
Splash erosion
 The bigger the raindrop, the
faster it hits the soil.
 A drop of rain causes soil to
splash. Gravity causes more
particles to move down than up
slope
 Types of water erosion

Sheet erosion Rill erosion Gully erosion

 Erosion occurs more or less  Erosion occurs as water  Gully erosion causes deep
uniformly concentrates in small channels channels
 Small stones protect the erosion  Subsequent cultivation erases  Subsequent cultivation cannot
of soil underneath the rills, however, soil is lost correct the gullies
Types of water erosion
Control of gully erosion
Check dams may be constructed: a small, sometimes
temporary, dam constructed across a swale, drainage ditch, or waterway to
counteract erosion by reducing water flow velocity

Ray R. Weil

General outline of a check dam A properly constructed check dam

 Control of accelerated erosion
In semi arid lands, overgrazing and
improper cultivation should be avoided
In forests, accelerated erosion can be
controlled by proper cutting and
trailing of timber in right time
Rather than runoff, rain drops falling
from leaves of tall trees cause much
erosion. Therefore, forest floor Ray R. Weil
Improperly managed farm Erosion due to lack of
containing organic matter should be on the right side of fence forest floor
preserved to prevent erosion due to over grazing
 Crop rotation
Alternating the crop planted (e.g.,
between corn and soybeans) can
restore nutrients to soil and fight pests
and disease.
 Contour farming
Planting along contour lines of slopes
helps reduce erosion on hillsides.
 Intercropping
Mixing crops such as in strip cropping
can provide nutrients and reduce
erosion.
Alley cropping
 Terracing
• Cutting stairsteps or terraces is the
only way to farm extremely steep
hillsides without causing massive
erosion. It is labor-intensive to create,
but has been a mainstay for centuries
in the Himalayas and the Andes.
 Conservation tillage
• No-till and reduced-tillage farming
leaves old crop residue on the ground
instead of plowing it into soil. This
covers the soil, keeping it in place.
• Here, corn grows up out of a “cover
crop.”
 Control of erosion in constructed sites
Excavation should be done in low rainfall periods
At one particular time, only one portion of land should be cleared and graded
Disturbed soils should be covered with vegetation as soon as possible
Control the flow of runoff to retain or detain most of the water and move the
excess safely off the site without destructive gully formation.
Sediments should be trapped before releasing the excess runoff water off-site.
 Control of erosion in constructed sites
Covering the exposed soil

 Hydroseeders – sprays a mixture of  Erosion control mats are spreaded

grass seed, straw, fertilizer, water and made up of jute
sticky polymers.  Holds the soil and seeds in place
 Establishes vegetation in difficult to access until the vegetation is established
areas
Control of erosion in constructed sites
Controlling stream bank erosion Avoiding gully erosion

Ray R. Weil
Hard and soft armors are used to Large rocks are used to control off-site
control stream bank erosion effects of gully erosion in bare soils
Control of erosion in constructed sites
Trapping sediment Trapping sediment

Ray R. Weil

Straw in the end of site slows down and A sediment retention pond. The pipe at the
lets runoff while retaining the sediment upper end allows excess water to flow out
Other means of land degradation

Mass wasting is the downhill movement of unstable soil along with regolith
It is of three types
1. Soil creep – slow, downward movement of soil curving the trees
2. Mud flows – partial liquefaction of soil and their moderately rapid movement
due to loss of cohesion
3. Land slides – sudden shear failure, causing rapid downhill movement of soil
 Mass wasting

By Sb2s3 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=44188845 earth-chronicles.com Ray R. Weil

Soil creep in England Mud flow in Colombia Land slide

 Reference:
 The Nature and Properties of Soils by Nyle C. Brady and
Ray R. Weil
 SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY
AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION
Concepts Covered:

What is USLE?

How is it calculated?

Revised USLE (RUSLE)

Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
A number of environmental factors cause soil erosion
Based on this relation, the USLE is developed to calculate the amount of soil lost
A = R x K x LS x C x P
where A = predicted annual soil loss
R = rainfall erosivity rain-related factor
K = soil erodibility
L = slope length soil-related factors
S = slope gradient or steepness
C = cover and management
P = erosion-control practices land-management factor
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

USLE predicts the amount of soil lost by sheet and rill erosion in an average
year for a given location
Can show varying combination of soil and land-management factors
contributing to erosion and hence, aids in decision management
Disadvantages
Cannot predict the soil loss for gully erosion
Rainfall Erosivity Factor, R

Rainfall is the primary cause of erosion by means of detachment,

transportation and deposition of sediment
The amount of soil eroded depends on the amount, intensity and seasonal
distribution of rainfall
Torrential rain for a short period causes more erosion than gentle rain for a long
period
Calculating R

Rain drops have kinetic energy – larger

the drops, more the energy
An index of kinetic energy of all the
storms occurring in a particular year is
summed to give an annual index
The annual index is then averaged for
many years to obtain R for an area
Intense, unexpected storms causes high
variability in rainfall intensity
Influence of R factor on
runoff, soil loss and P loss
Soil Erodibility Factor, K

Soil erodibility is the soil’s inherent susceptibility to erosion

It is the amount of soil lost per unit of erosive energy of rainfall in a standard
plot
High infiltration capacity and highly stable soils containing iron and aluminium
oxides have less Erodibility factor
0 < K < 0.1
erodibility
Soil Erodibility Factor, K

Factors increasing K (less Factors reducing K (more

resistant to erosion) resistance to erosion)
High silt and sand content  High soil organic matter
Expansive clays  Non-expansive clays
Presence of impervious soil
 Strong granular structure
layers
Blocky, platy or massive soil
structure
Topographic factor, LS

LS represents the influence of length and steepness of slope on soil erosion

Soil loss from a given plot

LS =
Soil loss from a standard plot

The standard plot is 22m long with 9% steepness

Longer the slope of given plot, greater will be the chance for accumulation
and concentration of runoff
With increase in slope length and steepness, LS increases and
hence the erosion
Topographic factor, LS
(a) Low erosion sites
eg:rangelands
(b) Moderate erosion sites
eg: tilled row-cropped lands
(c) High erosion sites
eg: freshly disturbed sites

Renard et al. (1994)

Relationship between LS factor and slope gradient for three types of sites
Topographic factor, LS

In range lands (low erosion sites), soil steepness has higher influence on
erosion than the slope length
Whereas, in freshly excavated/disturbed soils, slope length has a greater
influence on soil erosion
Cover and management factor, C

Cropping systems and vegetation cover

affect the soil erosion Greater the ground cover,
lesser the erosion
Soil loss under given conditions
C=
Soil loss in bare soil

Hence, C will approach 1 under less

vegetative cover/bare soil
C will be less in well covered soils
Ray R. Weil
Cover and management factor, C

Undisturbed forests and dense grass

avoid erosion the best
In arid lands, even a small amount of
shrub can reduce erosion drastically
In cultivated lands, forage crops
prevent erosion
Cover crops are grown primarily to
prevent erosion
Guo and Shao (2013)

Effect of increasing the shrub density

on runoff in a semi-arid region
 Cover and management factor, C

Gully erosion Clear water

in a bare soil channel in a
Water is grass covered
muddy as it soil
carries soil

Ray R. Weil
Support practice factor, P

Support practices done to reduce erosion are taken into account in the P factor

Soil loss under the given support practice

P=
Soil loss if row crops were planted up and down the slope

If no support practice is done, P = 1

Support practices include contour cropping, contour-strip cropping, terrace
systems and grassed waterways
Each support practice in the given area contributes to C
Support practice factor, P

Contour cultivation
Crops planted across the slope gradient
Reduces erosion
Contour-strip cropping
Narrow strips of field alternated with tilled row crops
Shortens the effective field length
The water cannot achieve high velocity with alternate fields, hence less erosion
Support practice factor, P

Jeff Vanuga, USDA/NRCS

Ray R. Weil

Contour cropping with graded terraces Contour strip cropping

Support practice factor, P

Grassed waterways
Contour strips are
augmented by grassed
waterways
They consist of permanent
sods established in shallow
channels
USDA/NRCS
They carry water from the With (right) and without (left) a grassed waterway
field without creating
gullies
Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
(RUSLE)
RUSLE is the computerized version of USLE, however, constantly improvised
RUSLE also considers the interrelationships between various factors
Takes into account the seasonal and temporal changes and numerous sub
factors
More stations are taken into account for averaging and specific corrections are
applied for unique scenarios
 USLE calculation
Consider a land of Marshall silt loam. It is Consider the same soil as left with same R
clean-tilled and fallowed. Has a slope of 6% and K values. However, assume that crop
and average slope length of 100m. R = 2550 rotation is done here and mulch is left in soil.
(from map), K = 0.044 for this area (from Hence, C = 0.13. Also, they are planted on the
Wischmeier and Smith (1978)), LS = 1.7 contours with terraces. Therefore, P = 0.4.
(high rill/interrill ratio on bare soil), no Hence, LS will now reduce to 1.4 (moderate
cover and hence C=1, up and down tillage rill/interrill ratio)
down the hill, hence P = 1
A = R x K x LS x C x P
A = R x K x LS x C x P
= (2550) x (0.044) x (1.4) x (0.13) x (0.4)
= (2550) x (0.044) x (1.7) x (1) x (1)
= 8.2 Mg/ha
= 191 Mg/ha
= 3.4 tons/acre
= 85.2 tons/acre
 SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY
AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
CONSERVATION TILLAGE
Concepts Covered:

 What is conservation tillage

 Classification of conservation tillage

 Erosion control by conservation tillage

 Effect on soil properties

Conservation tillage
Awareness about increasing erosion risk, decline soil
quality, high fuel and labour costs, and availability of wide
spectrum herbicides for weed control have led to the
development of alternative tillage systems.
These systems envisage: (i) minimum disturbance of soil,
and (ii) maintenance of some residue at the surface.
Initially, this system was known as the ‘minimum tillage’,
but in 1977, Soil Conservation Service of the united states
of America changed this term to “Conservation Tillage”.
Conservation tillage is defined as a form of non-inversion
tillage that retains the protective amounts of residue
mulch on the surface throughout the year.
Classification of conservation tillage system
• To be considered conservation tillage, a system must maintain enough plant
residues on the soil to cover at least 30% of the ground surface area after
planting.
Conventional tillage vs Conservation tillage

Conventional inversion tillage and conservation tillage in action. (Left) In

conventional tillage, a moldboard plow inverts the upper soil horizon, burying all
plant residues and producing a bare soil surface. (Right) A chisel plow, one type of
conservation tillage implement, stirs the soil but leaves a good deal of the crop
residues on the soil surface.
Zero tillage

In no-till systems, one crop is planted

directly into the residue of a cover crop or
of a previous cash crop, with only a narrow
band of soil disturbed. No-till systems leave
virtually all of the residue on the soil
surface, providing up to 100% cover and
nearly eliminating erosion losses. The
rolling furrow openers cut a slot through the
residue and soil into which the seed is
placed at a depth set by the depth wheel.
The effect of tillage systems on the percentage of
land surface covered by the crop residues

Note that the conventional moldboard plow system provided

essentially no cover, while no-till and planting on a ridge (ridge till)
provided best cover.
Adoption by the farmers

Adoption of conservation
agriculture (mainly high
residue tillage or no-till) on
farms in most of the world
has lagged far behind that in
Australia and North and
South America.
Vertical or turbo tillage

• Some long-term no-till farmers began to perceive thick surface accumulations

of crop residues to be an obstacle to incorporation of livestock manures and
lime and to soil warming and seed placement in spring.
• New types of high speed tillage implements designed to chop up residues and
so stir, but not invert, portions of the soil to shallow depths.
• Several sets or gangs of either smooth or fluted rolling knives (coulters) that
disturb the soil mainly in a vertical (rather than horizontal) direction by
producing, hence the process is sometimes referred to as vertical tillage.
Vertical or turbo tillage

• It disturbs about 30-40% of the soil

surface.
• Turbo tilling may maintain some 30–80%
residue coverage to protect from water
erosion, but also creates a high potential
for tillage erosion because the high speed
of the operation results in much soil being
thrown.
Burning straw and air pollution

The Wire
Happy seeder
• The Happy Seeder is a tractor-
mounted machine that cuts and lifts
rice straw, sows wheat into the bare
soil, and deposits the straw over the
sown area as mulch.
• It therefore allows farmers to sow
wheat immediately after their rice The Hindu Business Line

harvest without the need to burn any

rice residue for land preparation.
Erosion controlled by conservation tillage

• It promotes rapid infiltration which reduces the surface runoff loss.

• Also significantly reduces the loss of nutrients dissolved in runoff water or
attached to sediment.
Although the differences are not as pronounced as with soil erosion. These
differences are reflected in the much lower C factor values assigned to
conservation tillage systems.
Erosion controlled by conservation tillage
Effect on soil properties
Physical Properties Chemical Properties Biological properties
• Decrease bulk density • Increases the nutrient • The abundance, activity,
• Increase infiltration mineralization and diversity of soil
• Increase water holding • Increase CEC organisms tend to be
capacity • But may increase greatest.
• Increase organic matter denitrification
• Residue covered soils are • Decreases the
generally cooler (some decomposition rate
times it is detrimental for • As mixing of soils does
the seed germination) not take place so there is
a chance of developing a
acidifying effect due to
decomposition. Lime
application is needed.
Effect on soil properties
Effect on soil properties

Soil conditions in a no-till system No-till system vs. conventional on same soil
Some other effects

Dense growth of nitrogen-fixing vetch Development of porous soil architecture

within a zero tillage rotation beneath a grass crop in rotation
 Trade-Offs

Conservation Tillage
Advantages Disadvantages

Reduces erosion Can increase

herbicide use for
Saves fuel some crops
Cuts costs

Holds more soil

water Leaves stalks that
can harbor crop
Reduces soil pests and fungal
compaction diseases and
increase pesticide
Allows several crops use
per season

Does not reduce

crop yields Requires
investment
Reduces CO2 in expensive
release from soil equipment
 SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY
AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
WIND EROSION AND TILLAGE EROSION
Concepts Covered:

 Reasons of wind erosion

 Mechanisms of wind erosion

 Prediction of wind erosion

 What is tillage erosion

 Prediction of tillage erosion

 Reasons for wind erosion
• Overgrazing of the fragile land of arid and semi-arid areas.
• Dry region with strong wind and no obstacles.
Regions vulnerable to both wind erosion include the Sahel in Africa, the Pacific
coast of South America, and the Loess Plateau in China.
Mechanisms of wind erosion

Wind erosion involves three processes: (1) detachment, (2) transportation, and
(3) deposition.
The moving air, itself, results in some detachment of tiny soil grains from the
granules or clods of which they are a part. However, when the moving air is
laden with soil particles, its abrasive power is greatly increased.
There are three process of transportation –
(i) Saltation
(ii) Soil creep
(iii) Suspension
 The transportation process
Saltation Soil creep Suspension
1. The first and most important 1. Rolling and sliding along the 1. Dust particles of a fine-sand
mode of particle surface of the larger particles. size and smaller are moved
transportation 2. The bouncing particles carried parallel to the ground surface
2. Movement of soil by a series by saltation strike larger and upward.
of short bounces along the particles and aggregate and 2. The turbulent action of the
ground surface. accelerate their movement wind results in other particles
3. The particles remain fairly along the surface. being carried Kilometers
close to the ground as they 3. Soil creep accounts for the upward into the atmosphere
bounce, seldom rising more movement of particles up to and many hundreds of
than 30 cm or so. about 1.0 mm in diameter, kilometers horizontally.
4. Depending on conditions, this which may amount to 5–25% 3. The process stops when wind
process may account for 50– of the total movement. subsides or precipitation
90% of the total movement of wash them down. It may
soil. accounts for more than 40%
of the total and is generally
no more than about 15%.
The transportation process
 Light areas show where
topsoil has been eroded.

Deposition of
topsoil along fence
lines.
Dust Bowl - US
1920’s-30’s
 Factors affecting wind erosion
1. Wind velocity and turbulence: The threshold velocity—the wind speed required to initiate soil
movement—is usually about 25 km/h (7 m/s). At higher wind speeds, soil movement is
proportional to the cube of the wind velocity.
2. Surface roughness: Wind erosion is less severe where the soil surface is rough. This roughness
can be obtained by proper tillage methods or the erosion can be reduced by stubble
mulching.
3. Soil properties: In addition to moisture content, wind erosion is also influenced by: (1)
mechanical stability of soil clods and aggregates, (2) stability of soil crusts, (3) bulk density,
and (4) size of erodible soil fractions.
4. Vegetation: Vegetation or stubble mulch will reduce wind erosion hazards, especially if rows
run perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction.
Predicting wind erosion

• The wind erosion prediction equation (WEQ) has been in use since the late
1960s:

• The predicted amount of soil loss by wind erosion E is a function f of five

factors:
Predicting wind erosion
An increase in mean temperature on
the Colorado plateau of 3 °C resulted
in greater soil drying that decreased
vegetation cover from 45% to 20% of
the ground surface. In turn, this
climate-induced reduction in
vegetative cover more than doubled
the amount of erosion caused by high
winds the following year.
Predicting wind erosion
The soil erodibility factor I relates to the properties of the soil and to the
degree of slope of the site in question.
The soil-ridge-roughness factor K takes into consideration the cloddiness of
the soil surface, vegetative cover V, and ridges on the soil surface.
The climatic factor C involves wind velocity, soil temperature, and
precipitation (which helps control soil moisture).
The width of field factor L is the width of a field in the downwind direction.
Naturally, the width changes as the direction of the wind changes, so the
prevailing wind direction is generally used.
The vegetative cover V relates not only to the degree of soil surface covered
with residues, but to the nature of the cover—whether it is living or dead,
still standing, or flat on the ground.
 Predicting wind erosion
• A revised, more complex, and more accurate computer-based
prediction model has been developed, and is known as the revised wind
erosion equation (RWEQ).
• The RWEQ makes adjustments in the residue, soil erodibility, and soil
roughness parameters, based on the input information about
management operations and weather conditions.
• For example, it assumes that residues decompose over time, tillage
operations flatten standing residues, and rainfall reduces soil roughness
by slaking soil clods.
Predicting wind erosion

• Scientists and engineers around the world are also cooperating in the continual
development of a much more complex process-based model known as the
Wind Erosion Prediction System (WEPS).
• This computer program simulates all the basic processes of wind interaction
with soil.
 Control of wind erosion
• Soil moisture: soil moisture increases cohesiveness, the wind speed required to detach
soil particles increases dramatically as soil moisture increases.
• Soil cover: Plant cover effectively protects soil from blowing, especially if the plant
roots are well established. Crop rotations that include cover crops can greatly diminish
wind erosion.
• Tillage: The effect of tillage depends not only on the type of implement used, but also
on the timing of the tillage operation. Tillage can greatly reduce wind erosion if it is
done while there is sufficient soil water to cause large clods to form.
• Barriers: Barriers or windbreaks such as tree shelter belts are effective in reducing wind
velocities for short distances and for trapping drifting soil. Significant protection against
wind erosion extends to a distance of about ten times the height of the barrier.
Ecological engineers use straw
checkerboards for wind erosion control,
reforestation and improvement of
sandy soils in arid Ningxia Province,
China.
Shelterbelts
• Rows of fast-growing trees around crop plantings provide windbreaks, reducing erosion
by wind.

Figure 8.16e
Tillage erosion

Tillage implements such as chisel plow loosen and

move large quantities of soil, some of which is
thrown into the air. The amount of a certain soil
that will be moved and the distance it is moved
depend on the design of the implement, depth of
tillage, and speed of travel. The soil moves mainly
in the direction of travel, but will move much
farther when travel is downslope so gravity assists
the movement. When tillage is upslope, gravity
hinders the forward movement of soil.
A chisel plow in action
The whitish calcareous subsoil material from Mollisols is mixed into the plow layer of
a conventionally tilled field in sub-humid region. The diagram illustrates how tillage
scalps the hilltops by throwing soil farther downslope than upslope, resulting in a
net movement of soil downslope and gradual leveling of the landscape.
Quantification of tillage erosion

• There are several models of tillage erosion that are based on the relationship
between the amounts of soil moved by tillage in the upslope and downslope
directions and slope gradient.
• The most general of these models is the Tillage Erosion Risk Indicator model
(TillERI), which in its simplest form considers the product of a tillage implement
factor and a landscape factor
Quantification of tillage erosion

• Here At = annual rate of soil movement downslope due to tillage erosion (Mg
ha–1 y–1);
• Et = the erosivity of tillage operations (kg · %−1 · m−1 · y−1) expressed as kg of soil
moved annually per m of tillage width and percentage slope inclination (where
a slope of 45° = 100%);
• and El = the erodibility of the landscape (% · m · ha−1).
Quantification of tillage erosion

• The landscape erodibility factor, El, is based on slope length (l) and
slope gradient (s) factor values and can be determined using the
topographic data from the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE).
• Soil properties such as water content, texture, and structure also
influence the vulnerability of a landscape to tillage erosion.
• The erosivity of tillage operations Et is a function of four factors (Id, Io,
Im, Ib) related to the tillage implement and how it is used.
Quantification of tillage erosion

• Id represents the design of the tillage implement, i.e., the type, size, number, and angle of
coulters, tines, or other steel parts that interact with the soil.
• The second factor Io represents the mode of operation of the implement, namely, the speed and
depth of tillage.
• The third factor Im represents the match between the available power of the tractor and the
power required to draw the implement.
• Finally, the fourth factor Ib represents the operator behavior, i.e., how steadily and in what
patterns (across or up and down the slopes) the farmer drives across the field.
 SOIL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Dr. SOMSUBHRA CHAKRABORTY
AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

Topic
TOXIC ORGANIC CHEMICALS IN SOILS
Synthetic organic chemicals in soil

Accidental leakage
Spills
Through planned burial
Spraying
Other treatments
Environmental Damage from Organic Chemicals

• Xenobiotics : synthetic organic chemicals which are unfamiliar

to the living world (Greek xeno, strange).
• Being nonnatural, many xenobiotics are either toxic to living
organisms or resistant to biological decay, or both.
• The chemical structures of xenobiotic compounds may be quite
similar to those of naturally occurring compounds produced by
microorganisms and plants.
• The difference is commonly the insertion of halogen atoms (Cl,
F, Br) or multivalent nonmetal atoms (such as S and N) into the
structure
Representative compounds in 18 classes of
widespread organic contaminants
Representative compounds in 18 classes of
widespread organic contaminants
Representative compounds in 18 classes of
widespread organic contaminants
 Pesticide consumption trends in India

Source: Based on data from Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers

 Pesticide problems
Public health impacts
Domestic animals deaths and contaminations
Loss of natural enemies
Pesticide resistance
Honeybee and pollination losses
Crop losses
Fishery losses
Bird losses
Groundwater contamination
Contamination: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

• Also called organochlorines

• An organic compound
containing chlorine
• They stay in the environment
for a long time and travel long
distances
• E.g. polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs); common pesticides,
such as DDT or Dioxin
Important processes affecting the dissipation
of organic chemicals (OC) in soils

Ray R. Weil
 Pesticide adsorption in soil
1. Adsorption of polychlorinated
biphenyl (PCB) by different soil
materials.
2. The soil lost much of its adsorption
capacity when treated with
hydrogen peroxide H2O2 to remove
its organic matter.
3. The amount of soil material
required to adsorb 50% of the PCB
was approximately ten times as
Strek and Weber (1982)
great for montmorillonite (a 2:1
clay mineral) as for soil organic
matter, and ten times again as
great for H2O2 treated soil.
Pesticide effects on soil microorganisms

1. Effects of organic pesticides on soil

organisms may be more subtle than
mortality.
2. Here, the burrowing behavior of
earthworms was shown to be
dramatically inhibited by a
neonicotinoid insecticide
(imidacloprid) often used for seed
Ray R. Weil treatments.
Human health effect