Basic Electrical Engineering

Unit 1 - ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Electrical quantities - Charge, Electric potential, current, power and Energy,
Passive components (RLC)- Fundamental laws of electric circuits-steady
solution of DC circuits - Introduction to AC circuits- Sinusoidal steady state
analysis-Power and Power factor – Single phase and Three phase balanced
circuits - Classification of Instruments-Operating Principles of indicating
instruments.
 MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
 Introduction
• Measurement:
It is the act or result of quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard and
an unknown quantity.
• Instrument:
It is a device or mechanism used to
determine the present value of a quantity under
observation.
 Classification of Instruments
• Instruments can be classified as:
1. Absolute instruments
2. Secondary instruments

1. Absolute instruments:
 Absolute instruments indicate the value of the quantity
being measured in terms of constant of instruments
and its deflection.
 No comparison with standard instrument is necessary.
 Example: tangent galvanometer, Rayleigh current
balance.
 Continued…
2. Secondary instruments:
 The secondary instruments need calibration with
respect to the absolute instruments.
 The secondary instruments determine the value of
the quantity being measured from the deflection
of the instruments.
 Calibration is a must for secondary instrument,
without calibration the deflection obtained is
meaningless.
 Example: Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
 Continued…
• Classification based on the nature of operation:
 Secondary instruments are further classified
according to the nature of operation as:
1. Indicating
2. Recording
3. Integrating instruments.
 Indicating instruments indicate the
instantaneous value of quantity under
measurement.
 Continued…
Recording instruments give a continuous
record of variation of quantity being measured
(such as voltage, frequency, power etc.).
Recorders are commonly used in power plants,
process industries.
An integrating instrument is one which takes
into consideration the period or the time over
which the quantity is supplied. e.g. ampere-
hour meter, energy meter.
 Continued…
• Electrical instruments can also classified as:
1. A.C. instruments
2. D.C. instruments
3. A.C./D.C. instruments
 Some electrical instruments can measure only
A.C. quantity, e.g. induction type instruments,
some can measure only D.C. quantity, e.g.
P.M.M.C. instruments. Some can work on both
a.c. and d.c. e.g. moving iron instruments,
dynamometer instruments etc.
 Continued…
• Analog or Digital instruments:
 One more way of classifying instrument is:
1. Analog instruments
2. Digital instruments.
 Analog information is continuous and stepless
function of time. Analog instruments are easy to
understand, calibrate and maintain.
 Digital information is in form of discrete pulses
or steps. Digital instruments have higher
resolution, high readability.
 Continued…
• Various instruments used in practice:
Following instruments used in day to day life
in order to measure different quantity.
Sr. Name of the instruments Quantity measured
No.
1. Voltmeter AC or DC voltage
2. Ammeter AC or DC current
3. Wattmeter AC power (Watt)
4. Energy meter Energy (Watt hour)
Operation of Indicating Instruments
• For satisfactory operation of any indicating
instrument, following three torques must act
together appropriately:
1. Deflecting torque
2. Controlling torque
3. Damping torque
 Continued…
1. Deflecting Torque:
• It causes the moving system of the instrument to
move from its position of rest.
• Deflecting torque is produced by using any one
of the following effects of electric current:
i. Magnetic effect
ii.Electromagnetic induction effect
iii.Heating effect
iv.Electrostatic effect
 Continued…
2. Controlling Torque:
• It limits the movement of moving systems. It
also ensures that magnitude of deflection is
always the same for the given value of input
quantity under measurement.
• Controlling torque acts in the opposite
direction to that of the deflecting torque.
• At steady state,
Deflecting torque = Controlling torque
 Continued…
3. Damping Torque:
• Due to deflecting torque, pointer moves in one
direction while due to controlling torque pointer moves
in opposite direction.
• Due to these opposite torques, the pointer may oscillate
in the forward and backward direction if the damping
torque is not present.
• Damping torque brings the moving system to rest
quickly in its final position.
• Damping torque acts only when the moving system is
actually moving. If moving system is at rest, damping
torque is zero.
 Continued…
• Critical Damping:
 Depending on the magnitude of torque, damping may
be classified as underdamped, overdamped or critically
damped. Effect of damping on the deflection of the
instrument is shown in fig.(1).
 If the instrument is underdamped, the pointer will come
to rest after some oscillations.
 If the instrument is overdamped, pointer takes
considerable time to obtain its final deflected position.
 If the damping is critical, without oscillation and in
short time the pointer reach its final steady position.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): Effect of damping on the deflection of instrument

1. PMMC Instruments:
 They are also known as d’Arsonval
instruments.
 These instruments works on the
electromagnetic effect of current.
 A permanent magnet used to produce
magnetic flux and coil that carries the current
to be measured moves in this field.
 Continued…
• Working principle:
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force. It is given by expression,
F = BIL
Where F = Force in Newton,
B = Flux density is tesla,
I = Current is ampere,
L = Length of conductor in meter.
 The current I which is to be measured is passed through the moving coil
and experiences a force which is directly proportional to this current.
 Due to this force the coil moves and the pointer attached to it will also
move.
 The angle through which the pointer moves is proportional to current I.
 Continued…
• Construction of PMMC instrument:
 A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame
(spindle) positioned between the poles of a U shaped
permanent magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys
like alnico.
 The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing and thus the
coil is free to rotate. The current is fed to the coil
through spiral springs which are two in numbers.
 The coil which carries a current, which is to be
measured, moves in a strong magnetic field produced
by a permanent magnet and a pointer is attached to the
spindle which shows the measured value.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): construction of PMMC instrument

 Continued…
• Deflecting Torque:
 It can be proved that the expression for the deflecting
torque is given by,
Td = G x I
where G = constant
I = Current through the moving coil
• Controlling Torque:
 The controlling torque is given by,
Tc = C. θ
where C = Control spring constant in N-m/rad
θ = Deflection of coil from zero position
 Continued…
For steady state, the controlling torque is equal
to the deflection torque
∴ Tc = Td
i.e. Cθ = GI
∴θ∝I
Thus deflection of the pointer is proportional
to current passed through the coil.
 Continued…
• Advantages of PMMC Instruments:
1. The PMMC consumes less power and has great
accuracy.
2. It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of
270 degree.
3. The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
4. It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with
suitable resistance.
5. It has efficient damping characteristics and is not
affected by stray magnetic field.
6. It produces no losses due to hysteresis.
 Continued…
• Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments:
1. The moving coil instrument can only be used on
D.C supply as the reversal of current produces
reversal of torque on the coil.
2. It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit
with a rectifier.
3. It’s costly as compared to moving coil iron
instruments.
4. It may show error due to loss of magnetism of
permanent magnet.
 Moving Iron (MI) instruments
Where ruggedness is more important than high
degree of accuracy, moving iron instruments
are used.
• Types of moving iron instruments:
1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type
 Continued…
1. Attraction type moving iron instrument:
• Construction of the attraction type moving iron
instrument is as shown in the given figure (1).
• The moving iron, i.e. the disc of soft iron, is
eccentrically mounted. Coil is situated around the
disc. When the coil is excited it produces magnetic
field.
• Due to magnetic field the moving iron moves from
the weaker field outside the coil to the stronger field
inside the coil. Thus moving iron gets attracted
inwards and thus the name attraction type.
 Continued…
• The controlling torque is provided by the
balance weights attached to the moving iron.
Spring also can be used to provide controlling
torque.
• Damping is provided by air friction in which
aluminum piston is attached to the moving
system and moves in a closed air damping
chamber.
 Continued…

Fig.(1): attraction type moving instrument

 Continued…
2. Repulsion type moving iron instrument:
• In these type of instruments there two vanes present
inside the coil in which one is fixed while other is
movable. These both vanes gets similarly magnetized
when coil is excited. Thus there is a force of repulsion
between both vanes causing movement in movable
vane. There are further two different designs of
repulsion type moving iron instruments.
i. Radial vane type:
• In radial vane type radial strips of iron are used as
moving vanes. The fixed vane is attached to the coil
and moving is attached to the moving spindle.
 Continued…
ii. Coaxial vane type:
• In coaxial vane type the fixed as well as moving
vanes are the sections of coaxial cylinders as
shown in above figure.

The controlling torque is provided by the springs

or balancing weights (in vertically mounted
instrument). The damping is provided by air
friction damping same as in attraction type
moving iron instruments.
 Continued…

Radial vane type Coaxial vane type

Fig.(2):Repulsion type Moving Iron Instrument

 Continued…
• Advantages of Moving iron Instruments:
1. Suitable of a.c. as well as d.c. measurements.
2. Good accuracy.
3. Cheaper in cost as compared to permanents
magnet moving coil instruments.
4. The instrument has high torque to weight ratio.
5. The instrument can be used for low frequency
measurement also.
 Continued…
• Disadvantages of Moving iron instruments:
1. Power consumed by the instrument is high as
compared to that of the permanent magnet
moving coil instrument.
2. The scale is non-uniform.
3. Due to the presence of iron part in the
operating system, error due to the hysteresis
effect is introduced. To reduce this effect
nickel iron alloys are used.