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CONTENTS AT A GLANCE Memory Upgrade Considerations

Select the memory form factor Get enough memory to fill a bank Consider specialized memory Select the RAM speed Select the RAM size Select memory parity Consider specialized memory adapters Weigh the cost

Performing the Memory Upgrade

Static precautions Prepare the system Install the devices Set the DIP switches Set the CMOS Test the system

Troubleshooting Memory Upgrades Further Study

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Of all the possible upgrades that are available for a PC, the memory upgrade is most popular. The growing movement toward sophisticated, memory-intensive environments (e.g., Windows, Windows 95, and the eventual emergence of Windows 98), forces many users to quickly outgrow the 8MB to 16MB of base memory that most new systems are sold with. Even DOS-based applications (especially games and multimedia products) demand a startling amount of extended or expanded memory. Extra RAM reduces the demands on Windows permanent swap filesthis not only speeds system performance under Windows and Windows 95, but allows more applications to be run simultaneously. This chapter is intended to illustrate the considerations behind a memory upgrade, explain a typical
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upgrade process, and guide you through the symptoms and solutions of various upgrade problems.

Memory Upgrade Considerations

Fortunately, memory upgrades are really quite modular (even for older systems). Every motherboard provides plug-in receptacles for additional memory (in the form of SIMMs or DIMMs), and there are no cables or signal wiring to worry about as there is with most drives. When performed properly, you can add memory to a PC in as little as 15 minutes. As with all upgrades, however, a successful upgrade depends on proper planning. It is vital that you have the appropriate numbers of correct parts on-hand before starting the upgrade process. This part of the chapter outlines the major considerations when preparing an upgrade:

SELECT THE MEMORY FORM FACTOR

One of the very first considerations when planning a memory upgrade is the form factor of memory to be installed. Generally speaking, the three types of memory are: chip RAM, SIMMs, and DIMMs. Chip RAM are the individual RAM ICs typically found in XT and older AT systems. These are usually DIP-style ICs that are added individually to the motherboard or expansion memory board. Today, chip RAM is obsolete, and is usually ordinary SRAM serving as external (or L2) cache. Single In-line Memory Modules (SIMMs) and Dual In-line Memory Modules (DIMMs) provide a set of RAM ICs on the same slender plug-in module. SIMMs and DIMMs allow you to install large volumes of memory with a much lower risk of damage from installation error. SIMMs are typically available in 30-pin or 72-pin versions, and DIMMs are offered in 168-pin versions.

GET ENOUGH MEMORY TO FILL A BANK

SIMMs and DIMMs offer some special problems because you must determine the exact number of SIMMs or DIMMs required to fill a bank. The classic 30-pin SIMM provides 8 bits or 9 bits (8 data bits and 1 parity bit). If the data bus in your system is 16 bits (i286 and i386SX systems), you will need two SIMMs to handle the 16 bits (plus 2 parity bits). For most i386 and i486 systems, the data bus width is 32-bitsthis means you will need four 30-pin SIMMs to fill a 32-bit bank (32 bits plus 4 parity bits). The 72-pin SIMM tries to reduce the number of individual SIMMs by providing 32 or 36 bits (32 data bits and 4 parity bits) on a single assembly. This means that youd need one 72-pin SIMM to cover a 32-bit CPU or two 72-pin SIMMs to handle a 64-bit CPU, such as a Pentium. Newer i486 and just about all early Pentium systems use 72-pin SIMMs, but most of the latest Pentium MMX and Pentium II motherboards use 168-pin SIMMs. Because a DIMM is a 64-bit memory device, you only need one DIMM to cover a 64-bit CPU. Table 49-1 compares the requirements for each bank.

CONSIDER SPECIALIZED MEMORY

Although current PC motherboards are designed to accommodate relatively standard SIMMs and/or DIMMs, older systems (late-model i286 and many i386 systems) often used customized memory modules designed specifically for a particular system. Early

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TABLE 49-1 FILLING BANKS WITH SIMMS AND DIMMS 30-PIN SIMMS 16-bit CPU 32-bit CPU 64-bit CPU 2 4 8 (rare) 72-PIN SIMMS x 2 4 168-PIN SIMMS x x 1

NEC and Compaq computers were notorious for this. When choosing a memory upgrade, make it a point to check the user documentation for the system and ensure that the memory device is compatible. Another common tactic for non-standard systems is to use unusual memory devices, such as single in-line (SIP) or zig-zag in-line (ZIP) packages. There are two problems with specialized memory. First, specialized memory might not be available given the speed with which systems become obsolete, custom expansion devices rarely remain on the shelves. Second, even if custom devices are available, they are likely to be much more expensive than the RAM itself is actually worth (compared to SIMMs or DIMMs).

SELECT THE RAM SPEED

Memory performance is invariably tied to its memory access time (measured in nanoseconds, ns). Ideally, memory must be fast enough to keep pace with the system CPU; otherwise, the CPU must use wait states to artificially delay the system until memory can catch up. For example, an i286 system often used 120-ns to 150-ns RAM, i386 systems favored 70-ns to 100-ns devices, and i486 systems required 60-ns to 80-ns RAM. The motherboards manufacturer typically determines the working speed range for memory, although some motherboards allow you to set wait states to use slower (less expensive) memory. System documentation will often list a recommended RAM speed. If not, you can usually determine speed by looking at the markings on other memory devices. For example, the part number (such as MB81256-10) indicates a 100-ns device (taken from the 10). SDRAM (synchronous SRAM) has a special timing issue. Where memory makers quote most memory performance directly in terms of access time (i.e., a part number ending in 6 would be taken as 60 ns), SDRAM manufacturers often quote cycle time when advertising SDRAM specs. Cycle time is the time for one clock cycle, and is an indirect measure of top clock speed that the SDRAM can handle. Remember that SDRAM is synchronous. In other words, it can pass data for every clock cycle. If the SDRAM is rated at 10-ns cycle time, it can provide data every 10 ns, which means it can be used with motherboard clock speeds up to 100MHz. However, it takes five clock cycles to access the SDRAM before it can start bursting data every clock cycle. So, if the SDRAM has a cycle time of 10 ns, it has an access time of (5 10 ns) 50 ns. If the SDRAM was rated at 12 ns, its cycle time is 12 ns. The top bus frequency for that SDRAM would be 80MHz, and the access time would be 60 ns. Table 49-2 compares the specifications for three popular types of RAM.

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SELECT THE RAM SIZE

You now need to decide how much memory to add. This can sometimes be confusing because of the way SIMMs and DIMMs are sized. All memory is measured in bytes (8-bit

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TABLE 49-2 COMPARISON OF POPULAR RAM TIMING PARAMETERS FPM Part marking(s) Access time (ns) Cycle time (ns) Max speed (MHz) 5, 6, 7 50, 60, 70 30, 35, 40 33, 28, 25 EDO 5, 6, 7 50, 60, 70 20, 25, 30 50, 40, 33 SDRAM 10, 12, 15 50, 60, 70 10, 12, 15 100, 80, 66

segments). A 1MB--8 SIMM offers 1 million addresseseach with 8 bits per address. This is a 1MB SIMM. If the SIMM were 2MB 8, youd call it a 2MB SIMM, etc. If the SIMM used a 4MB--32 configuration, youd know that there are 4 million addresses each with 4 bytes. This would be a 16MB SIMM. Next, choose the memory devices that are appropriate for your particular memory situation. Although you can ideally place any size of SIMM into an available bank, not all motherboards support all combinations of SIMMs or DIMMs. For example, if two 16MB SIMMs are in the first bank, you might not be able to add two 8MB SIMMs to the second bankit really depends on the way in which your particular motherboard was designed and how versatile the main chipset is at utilizing RAM. Always check with your system or motherboard documentation to review the recommended combinations of memory devices. Youll usually find a chart, such as Table 49-3. Based on a chart like Table 49-3, you can select the proper SIMM or DIMM sizes. Suppose you only have 8MB of RAM in a given system in the form of two 4MB SIMMs (1MB 32). Lets say youd like to take advantage of a local memory sale and buy another 16MB as two 8MB SIMMs (2MB 32). You can see from the table (line 7) that you can add the two 8MB SIMMs to slots 3 and 4 to make a total of 24MB on your system. Youll find that memory layout charts such as this take a lot of the guesswork out of memory upgrades.

SELECT MEMORY PARITY

As you learned in Chapter 23, parity is a basic error-checking feature used to catch single-bit errors in memory. Parity requires an extra bit for every byte of RAM. So, you can always identify a parity SIMM by identifying the extra bits. For example, a 1MB--8 SIMM is non-parity because there are only 8 bits, but a 1MB--9 SIMM is parity (the 8 data bits plus 1 parity bit). By comparison, a 2MB--32 SIMM is non-parity because there are only 4 bytes of data32 bits. A 2MB--36 SIMM is parity (the 32 data bits plus 4 parity bits). Today, parity is often omitted from a PC. If you have parity checking disabled on the motherboard, you can generally use parity or non-parity SIMMs/DIMMs at your discretion. However, if you choose to use parity, all of the RAM must support parity. If you install non-parity RAM in a system with parity checking enabled, youll see parity errors when restarting the system.

CONSIDER SPECIALIZED MEMORY ADAPTERS

Although new motherboard designs easily accommodate large quantities of expansion RAM, older motherboards suffered from serious physical limitations that prevented

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TABLE 49-3 AN EXAMPLE OF RECOMMENDED MEMORY COMBINATIONS MEMORY SIZE 8MB 8MB 16MB 16MB 16MB 16MB 24MB 24MB 24MB 32MB 32MB 32MB 32MB 32MB 40MB 40MB 48MB 48MB 48MB 48MB 64MB 64MB 64MB 64MB 64MB 72MB 72MB 80MB 80MB 80MB 96MB 96MB 96MB 96MB 128MB 128MB 128MB 128MB 136MB 144MB

SIMM 1 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 1M 32 1M 32 4M 32 2M 32 1M 32 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 2M 32 8M 32 4M 32 2M 32 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 4M 32 2M 32 4M 32 16M 32 8M 32 4M 32 1M 32 2M 32

SIMM 2 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 1M 32 1M 32 4M 32 2M 32 1M 32 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 2M 32 8M 32 4M 32 2M 32 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 4M 32 2M 32 4M 32 16M 32 8M 32 4M 32 1M 32 2M 32

SIMM 3 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 4M 32 4M 32 1M 32 2M 32 4M 32 2M 32 8M 32 8M 32 1M 32 8M 32 2M 32 4M 32 8M 32 4M 32 16M 32 16M 32

SIMM 4 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 2M 32 1M 32 4M 32 4M 32 1M 32 2M 32 4M 32 2M 32 8M 32 8M 32 1M 32 8M 32 2M 32 4M 32 8M 32 4M 32 16M 32 16M 32

SIMM 5 1M 32 2M 32 4M 32 2M 32 4M 32 8M 32 8M 32 4M 32 8M 32

SIMM 6 1M 32 2M 32 4M 32 2M 32 4M 32 8M 32 8M 32 4M 32 8M 32

DIMM 1 1M 64 2M 64 1M 64 1M 64 4M 64 2M 64 1M 64 2M 64 8M 64 4M 64 1M 64 2M 64 4M 64 8M 64

DIMM 2 1M 64 2M 64 2M 64 4M 64 4M 64 4M 64 8M 64 8M 64 8M 64 8M 64

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TABLE 49-3 AN EXAMPLE OF RECOMMENDED MEMORY COMBINATIONS (CONTINUED) MEMORY SIZE 144MB 160MB 160MB 192MB 192MB 192MB 256MB 256MB 256MB 256MB SIMM 1 1M 32 4M 32 2M 32 8M 32 4M 32 8M 32 32M 32 16M 32 8M 32 SIMM 2 1M 32 4M 32 2M 32 8M 32 4M 32 8M 32 32M 32 16M 32 8M 32 SIMM 3 1M 32 16M 32 2M 32 16M 32 4M 32 8M 32 16M 32 8M 32 SIMM 4 1M 32 16M 32 2M 32 16M 32 4M 32 8M 32 16M 32 8M 32 SIMM 5 16M 32 16M 32 16M 32 8M 32 16M 32 SIMM 6 16M 32 16M 32 16M 32 8M 32 16M 32 DIMM 1 16M 64 DIMM 2 16M 64

FIGURE 49-1

An Improve Technologies SIMM expander board. Improve

Technologies, Inc.

adding more RAM than a given amount. When additional RAM must be added to i286 and i386 systems, specialized memory adapters (such as Improve Technologies Extend It board in Fig. 49-1) can be installed in an available ISA expansion board to provide extra memory capacity. Because of the speed limitations of the ISA bus, such memory rarely provides top performance, but it is often the only practical means of expanding memory beyond an older motherboards physical limit.

WEIGH THE COST

Traditionally, RAM is rather expensive (about $2.50/MB, as opposed to less than $0.50/MB for hard drives). At that price, the cost of memory can add up quickly. When planning an upgrade, consider whether the cost of the extra RAM is justified for the age and other features of the system. Do you really want to spend the money upgrading

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RAM in an i286 system? Of course, that question is only for you or your customer to answer.

Performing the Memory Upgrade

Mechanically speaking, the actual addition of memory ICs, SIMMs, or DIMMs during a memory upgrade is extremely straightforward. This part of the chapter covers the essential steps and precautions that you will need to remember along the way. Before starting any kind of memory upgrade, run a diagnostic program to check the existing system memory thoroughly before upgrading. This should limit the number of errors or upgrade problems to only those that deal with the memory.

STATIC PRECAUTIONS
As with todays CPUs, memory devices contain an astounding number of individual transistors. To achieve such a dense concentration of components, memory ICs are fabricated with semiconductor technologies that make them extremely sensitive to damage from electrostatic discharge (ESD). Before you even open the PC or remove the new memory from its containers, make it a point to take the following precautions. First, be sure to use an anti-static wrist strap connected to a proper earth ground. Second, have some anti-static foam on-hand to rest the memory, if necessarynever leave it on a synthetic or staticprone surface. Third, never handle memory ICs or SIMMs by their metal pins.

PREPARE THE SYSTEM

At this point, you can prepare the system for its upgrade. Be especially careful of screwdriver blades when working inside the PC. If you should slip, the blade can easily strike a drive or gouge the motherboard. It pays to be careful and gentle when upgrading a memory device. Before you even consider opening the PC cover, turn the system off, and unplug it from the ac receptacle. This helps to ensure your safety by preventing the PC from being powered accidentally while you are working on it. Remove the screws that hold down the outer cover, and place those screws in a safe place. Gently remove the PCs outer cover and set it aside (out of the path of normal floor traffic). You should now be able to look into the PC and observe the motherboard. Notice the number and location of memory expansion sockets that are available.

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INSTALL THE DEVICES

Installing a memory device is certainly not difficult, but you should watch for several common problems that plague memory installations. First, check the orientation of the memory device before attempting to install it. For example, RAM ICs must be positioned in the DIP socket so that pin 1 on the IC is aligned with pin 1 on the socket (Fig. 49-2). Otherwise, you will install the IC backwards. A reversed IC can easily be destroyedit will at least result in a memory error when the system is powered up again. A similar problem occurs with SIMMs, which can sometimes be installed backward (this is most common

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SIMM 1

DIP

FIGURE 49-2

Checking the proper orientation of memory devices.

with older 30-pin SIMMslater 72-pin SIMMs and all DIMMs are keyed to prevent improper installation). When you observe a SIMM from the front (memory ICs facing you), pin 1 is typically the left-most metal contact. Be sure that pin 1 on the SIMM is aligned with pin 1 on the SIMM socket. This can be a bit tricky because not all SIMM sockets are marked. In that case, insert the new SIMMs in the same orientation as other SIMMs in the system. If there are no other SIMMs, check the user documentation that comes with the PC. When no user data is available, insert the SIMMs so that their metal contacts are inserted against metal contacts in the SIMM socket. Second, when actually inserting the new memory device(s), be sure that they are installed completely. RAM ICs in DIP-style packages should slide into their sockets fully. Be extremely careful that all pins are inserted properlybent pins will almost certainly ruin the IC. SIMMs and DIMMs are a bit more forgiving because they have no pins to bend or break, but be sure to snap each SIMM or DIMM into its respective holderloose or unsecured SIMMs/DIMMs will result in intermittent memory problems. Finally, it is important to fill banks in ordermost motherboards cannot tolerate gaps in contiguous memory (although the newest motherboard designs can allow you to utilize banks out of order). Start by filling the lowest banks first (i.e., bank 0, bank 1, bank 2, etc.). Unfortunately, not all motherboards mark each bank so clearly. Refer to the user documentation for your system to determine which SIMM sockets are related to each bank.

SET THE DIP SWITCHES

When memory is added to a PC, the system must be made aware of the expansion. Older PCs used a series of DIP switches that could be enabled as new banks of ICs or SIMMs became available. Other motherboard designs use jumpers instead of DIP switches. Check the user documentation for your particular system and determine whether any DIP switches or jumpers must be adjusted. Set the switches or jumpers appropriately. Unfortunately, there is really no substitute for user documentation here. If the user documentation is missing, contact the system manufacturerthey might be able to fax you a copy of any switch or jumper settings. You might also be able to reference the settings in the Encyclopedia of Main Boards published by MicroHouse. In most cases, system or motherboard documentation can be obtained through the manufacturers Internet Web site.

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Most Pentium and later motherboards do not use DIP switches or jumpers to configure memory. That is accomplished through the CMOS setup routine.

SET THE CMOS

In addition to switches or jumpers on the motherboard, you will have to update the amount of expansion memory available in the system CMOS. At this point, check the PC and remove any tools or extra hardware from the system. Connect the ac cord and start the PC. As the system boots, start the setup routine (older systems might need to boot from a setup disk). Find the memory entries and update the extended or expanded entry to reflect the additional RAM. Newer systems might simply ask you to enter the grand total or RAM in the system. Be sure to save the new CMOS settings, then reboot the computer. If the upgrade has been successful, you should see the system test all of the available memory (including the RAM you just installed) and initialize to the DOS prompt without errors.
Most new BIOS versions do not require you to specify the total RAM installed. When the system boots, youll probably see a CMOS mismatch error. Start the CMOS setup and simply save your changes and reboot without entering any new valuesthe setup routine will automatically save the amount of RAM that was detected.

TEST THE SYSTEM

When the memory installation is complete, run a diagnostic to carefully inspect system RAM. Run repeated tests (i.e., a burn-in) to ensure that the new memory has no hidden problems that might materialize during actual use. When the system RAM checks properly, replace the outer housing and return the PC to service.

Troubleshooting Memory Upgrades

Although memory upgrades are among the fastest and easiest upgrade procedures for PCs, the variety of memory devices, sizes, configurations, and speeds presents an array of potential problems for a technician. No matter how much planning you put into memory upgrade or replacement, trouble can easily creep into the system. This part of the chapter guides you through some of the more frequently encountered memory problems.
Symptom 49-1. System freezes or fails to boot One or more memory devices might be installed incorrectly. This can happen if a RAM IC, SIMM, or DIMM is installed backward or incompletely. Open the system and review each new memory device carefully. Be certain that all ICs, SIMMs, or DIMMs are oriented properly and inserted into their respective holders correctly. Check for any bent or broken pins on RAM ICs. Also check for the presence of any stray pins or wiring that might be shorting out against other devices.

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Symptom 49-2. You see an error message indicating that the memory in the system does not match the memory in CMOS This is a classic problem

where the amount of memory listed in CMOS does not match the amount of physical memory detected. You might have forgotten to adjust the memory DIP switches or jumpers, or set the switches or jumpers improperly. You might also have neglected to update the CMOS memory configuration, updated the memory entry in CMOS incorrectly, or forgotten to save the new CMOS entry before rebooting the system. Start by checking the physical jumpers or DIP switchescorrect any erroneous settings. Check the system CMOS configuration next and be sure that the amount of memory entered actually matches the amount of memory installed. Be certain to save the new CMOS entries before rebooting the PC. In some cases, you need only save changes and reboot without actually entering any changes into the CMOS setup.
Symptom 49-3. After a new memory installation, an unusual number of memory errors or operating faults occur Chances are that you have installed the

new memory correctly, but the devices are either loose or mismatched for the system in use. Check the installation of each memory device. Be sure that ICs, SIMMs, or DIMMs are inserted in the system completely and securely. Next, check the speed rating of the original memory against the speed rating of the new memory. The new memory should be at least as fast as the original memory. Otherwise, the new memory will not keep pace with the system (resulting in random, unpredictable errors). If you find a speed mismatch, your ideal solution is to replace the new memory with devices of the proper speed. If this is not practical for logistical or financial reasons, see if you can add one or more wait states to compensate for the slower memory (often accomplished through jumpers or a CMOS setting). This will reduce the systems performance, but should eliminate memory errors that result from a speed mismatch. If problems continue, the fault might be in one or more of the memory devices. Try running a thorough diagnostic to inspect memory performance. Replace any defective devices.
Symptom 49-4. A memory error is generated at a specific address There

is a high probability that one of the new memory devices has failed. It might have been faulty from the factory, or it might have been accidentally damaged by static discharge or mishandling during installation. In either case, the device must be isolated and replaced. If the fault appears in an array of SIMMs or DIMMs, use a new device and cycle it through each occupied position. Be sure to shut off and unplug the PC before attempting to exchange a SIMM or DIMM. Each time you exchange devices, power up the PC again and allow the system to reboot. When the error disappears, the SIMM you removed and replaced is the defective one. RAM ICs pose a slightly more complicated problem. If the system is old enough to indicate which bank and IC has failed, it is then a simple matter of replacing the designated IC. For most systems, however, error messages do not correlate directly to IC position. When this happens, you will have little choice but to use a new IC and cycle it through each new RAM position (similar to the approach used for SIMMs or DIMMs). Be sure to turn the PC power off and disconnect the ac cord before attempting to exchange any ICs. When you do make a swap, be extremely careful to avoid bending or breaking IC pins. Each time you shift an IC, power up the PC and allow it to reboot. When the problem disappears, the IC that you had just removed is the defective one.

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Symptom 49-5. Parity errors occur after installing new memory The most

frequent cause of parity errors after a memory upgrade is improper system configuration chances are that you either installed non-parity memory in a system currently using parity checking, or you enabled parity checking on a system that uses non-parity memory. Check the memory characteristics again and verify that youve chosen the correct type of memory for your system. Also check the system configuration and see that the system is set up to use the new memory properly. It is also possible that a memory device has failed. Try reinstalling the SIMMs or DIMMs. If the problem persists, remove the new memory devices. If the problem then disappears, you know that one or more of the new memory devices is defective.

Further Study
That concludes Chapter 49. Be sure to review the glossary and chapter questions on the accompanying CD. If you have access to the Internet, take some time to review these memory upgrade resources: Cameleon Technology: http://www.camusa.com/ Improve Technologies: http://www.workstation-source.co.uk/improve/imphome.htm Kingston: http://www.kingston.com PNY: http://www.pny.com SIMM Saver: http://www.simmsaver.com/ SIMM Verter: http://www.primenet.com/~accs/

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