A radio propagation models describes the behavior of the signal while

it is transmitted from the transmitter towards the receiver. It gives a

relation between the distance of transmitter & receiver and the path loss.
From this relation, one can get an idea about the allowed path loss and
the maximum cell range.

 Large scale (Distance) Propagation Models

Propagation models are usually required to predict the average
received signal strength at a given distance from the transmitter
and estimating the coverage area (averaged over meters).
  Small scale (Distance) propagation model or Fading models
Propagation models that characterize rapid fluctuations of the received
signal strength over very short travel distances (few wavelengths) or
short time duration (on the order of seconds).

 Large scale (Distance) Propagation Models

Propagation models have traditionally focused on predicting the average
received signal strength at a given distance from the transmitter, as
well as the variability of the signal strength in close spatial proximity to
a particular location
Common factor effects in large scale radio propagation.
Reflection:
Propagation wave impinges on an object which is large as compared to
wavelength- e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by surface with
sharp irregular edgesWaves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS
(line of sight) does not exist. (Huygen’s principal)
Scattering
The through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions
smaller than the wavelength and where the number of obstacles per unit
volume is large – rough surfaces, small objects, foliage, street signs,
lamp posts.In mobile communication, the actual received signal is often
stronger than that is predicted by reflection and diffraction models.
 Large Scale Propagation Models:
1-Free Space Path Loss
The relation between the transmit and receive power is given by Friis
free space equations
FSPL (dB) = -10 log10 (PR / PT)
= 20 * log10 (d) + 20 * log10 (f) + 20 * log10 (4π / c) - GT - GR
 T — Transmitted signal power;
 GT — Gain of the transmitting antenna;
 GR — Gain of the receiving antenna;
 d — Distance between the antennas;
 λ — Wavelength of the signal;
 f — Frequency of the signal; and
 c — Speed of light in vacuum
 2- Two ray model
considers two components of received signal at receiver side.
One of them is LOS component which is same as transmitted
signal propagating in free space. The other component is
reflected component which transmitted signal reflected from
ground. This model is more useful in rural area. Following
figure shows diagram of the model.

Pr(dBm)=Pt(dBm)+10log10(Gl)
+20log10(hthr)−40log10(d)
3- Okumura Model
In early days, the models were based on empirical studies
Okumura did comprehensive measurements in 1968 and came

was a simple power law where the exponent 𝑛 is a function of

up with a model. Discovered that a good model for path loss

the frequency, antenna heights, etc. o It is one of the most

widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas, Valid
for frequencies in: 150 MHz – 1920 MHz for distances: 1km –
100k
𝐿50 (𝑑) (𝑑𝐵) = (𝑑) + 𝐴(𝑓, 𝑑) – 𝐺(ℎ𝑡𝑒) – 𝐺(ℎ𝑟𝑒) – 𝐺𝐴𝑅𝐸
𝐿50: 50th percentile (i.e. median) of path loss
𝐿𝐹 (𝑑): free space propagation pathless
(𝑓, 𝑑): median attenuation relative to free space
(ℎ𝑡𝑒): base station antenna height gain factor
(ℎ𝑟𝑒): mobile antenna height gain factor o 𝐺𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴: gain due
to different type of environment
ℎ𝑡𝑒: transmitter antenna height
ℎ𝑟𝑒: receiver antenna height 𝐺 ℎ𝑡𝑒 and 𝐺 ℎ𝑟𝑒 are
determined for different antenna height
Advantage
Okumuras’ model is considered to be among the simplest and
best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction for mature
cellular and land mobile system in a cluttered environment.
Disadvantage
Low response to rapid changes in terrain

4- Hata Model
Empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided
by Okumura Valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz For urban areas
the formula is
𝐿 (𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛, 𝑑) 𝑑𝐵 = 69.55 + 26.16 log 𝑓𝑐 − 13.82 log ℎ𝑡𝑒 – 𝑎
ℎ𝑟𝑒 + 44.9 – 6.55 log ℎ𝑡𝑒 log 𝑑
f c is the ferquency in MHz
hte is effective transmitter antenna height in meters (30-200m)
hre is effective receiver antenna height in meters (1-10 m)
d is T-R separation in km
a(hre) is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna
height which is a function of coverage area (different for large
and medium city)

Indoor Propagation Model

The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional mobile
radio channel in outdoor
- Distances covered are much smaller
- Variability of the environment is much greater
- Propagation inside buildings strongly influenced by specific
features Layout and building type, Construction materials ,
Even door open or closed, Same floor or different
floors ,Partition Losses.
Partition Losses
Same floor , Between floors and Characterized by a new factor
called Floor Attenuation Factors (FAF) Based on building
materials , FAF mostly empirical (computed over numerous
tests). For example, FAF through one floor approx. 13 dB – Two
floors 18.7 dB – Three floors 25 dB and so on.

What is small-scale fading?

Small scale propagation model is also called fading model. Fading
model characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength
over very short distance of a few wavelengths or short time duration.
The propagation models are used to estimate the performance of
wireless channels.

 Occurs due to multi-path waves

 Two or more waves (e.g: reflected/diffracted/scattered
waves)
 Such waves differ in amplitude and phase
 Speed of mobile/surrounding objects
 The frequency of the signal varies if relative motion
between transmitter and receiver
 E.g: The difference of sound heard when train is moving
towards you or away from you
 Transmission bandwidth
it is divided into various types. Let us take a look into them in detail.

The figure above shows the different types of fading and the sub-
categories. We have tried to elaborate on each type of fading below and
provide information on how do they affect wave propagation.

1. Large Scale Fading: This refers to the attenuation of signal power

due to obstacles between the transmitter and receiver. It also covers the
attenuation and fluctuations of signal when the signal is transmitted over
a long distance (usually in kilometres).

 Path Loss: It refers to the attenuation when a signal is transmitted

over large distances. Wireless signals spread as they propagate
through the medium and as the distance increases, the energy per
unit area starts decreasing (Click here to try the Path Loss
Calculator).This is a fundamental loss that is independent of the
type of transmitter and medium. Although, we can minimize its
effects by increasing the capture area/dimension of the receiver.
The figure below shows the radiation pattern and spread of the
signal transmitted from the antenna.

 Shadowing: This refers to the loss in signal power due to the

obstructions in the path of propagation. There are a few ways in
which shadowing effects can minimize signal loss. One that is
most effective, is to have a Line-Of-Sight propagation.

Shadowing losses also depend on the frequency of the EM wave.

As we know, EM Waves can penetrate through various surfaces
but at the cost of loss in power i.e signal attenuation. The losses
depend on the type of the surface and frequency of the signal.
Generally, the penetration power of a signal is inversely
proportional to the frequency of the signal.

2. Small Scale Fading: This refers to the fluctuations in signal strength

and phase over short distance and small duration of time. It is also called
Rayleigh Fading. Small Scale Fading affects almost all forms of wireless
communication and overcoming them is a necessity to increase
efficiency and decrease error.

 Fast Fading: It occurs mainly due to reflections for surfaces and

movement of transmitter or receiver. High doppler spread is
 observed in the fast fading with Doppler bandwidth comparable to
or greater than the bandwidth of the signal and the channel
variations are as fast or faster than the signal variations. It causes
linear distortions in the shape of the baseband signal and
creates Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). One way to remove ISI
is adaptive equalization.
 Slow Fading: It occurs mainly due to shadowing where large
buildings or geographical structures obstruct the LOS. Low
doppler spread is observed in Slow Fading with the doppler
bandwidth being smaller compared to the bandwidth of the signal
and the channel variations are slow relative to the signal variations.
It results in reduction of SNR which can be overcome using error
correction techniques and receiver diversity techniques.
 Multipath Fading: It occurs when a signal reaches the receiver
from various path i.e. when multipath propagation takes place.
Multipath fading can affect all ranges of frequencies starting from
low frequency to microwave and beyond. It affects both the
amplitude and the phase of the signal causing phase distortions and
ISI. Multipath fading can affect signal transmission in two ways:
o Flat Fading: In flat fading, all frequency components get
affected almost equally. Flat multipath fading causes the
amplitude to fluctuate over a period of time.
o Selective Fading: Selective Fading or Selective Frequency
Fading refers to multipath fading when the selected
frequency component of the signal is affected. It means
selected frequencies will have increased error and attenuation
as compared to other frequency components of the same
signal. This can be overcome by techniques such as OFDM
which spreads the data across the frequency components of
the signal to reduce data loss.