Unit I Introduction of Wireless Channel

Trupti Wagh
E&TC ,DYPCOE,Akurdi,Pune

Introduction, Free Space Propagation Model, Ground-Reflection

Scenario, Hata Model and Receiver-Noise Computation. Channel
Estimation techniques and Diversity in wireless communications

Reference : Rappaport, T. S., “Wireless Communications--Principles and Practice”, Pearson, 2nd Edition
Free-space propagation geometry
 How to predict the received signal strength ?
The Friis free-space equation, which gives the received power Pr (d) as a function of the distance d,
given by

where Pt - the transmitted power

Gt is the transmit antenna gain
Gr is the receive antenna gain
λ is the wavelength
L ≥ 1 the system-loss factor
Lets assume that the power received at a reference distance d0

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 That the received power decays as the inverse of d^2. The number 2 in the exponent of
d is also termed the path-loss exponent.
In db

The path-loss exponent varies from scenario to scenario and is typically greater than 2, especially in
the presence of reflectors.
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 Consider the ground-reflection scenario, The total received signal ETot is given as

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 E0 = the transmitted signal amplitude at a reference
distance d0,
dLOS = the propagation distance for the
LOS component.
denotes the phase lag of the carrier at the
receiver arising due to the propagation delay

• The signal amplitude is inversely proportional to the

distance of propagation

Assuming dLOS ≈ d, for the large-scale path loss, where d is the ground distance between
the transmitter and the receiver

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 Eg corresponding to the ground-reflection component

− ve sign arises because of the phase inversion from ground reflection

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 Evaluating Δd

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12 Prof. R R Itkarkar 01/28/2022
 Substituting Δd

Therefore, the net magnitude |E Tot | of the received signal is inversely proportional
to 1/d^2 , it follows that the net received power PTot, which is proportional to the
squared magnitude, decreases as1/ d^4 , indicating apath-loss exponent n = 4.
Thus, the path-loss exponent can vary depending on the scenario and, therefore, the
received power decays as 1/ d^n , where n = 2 for free space, while n can be significantly
greater than 2
Okumura Model
Amodel developed to accurately model the received signal strength in practical
wireless scenarios,
Okumura model, proposed by the Japanese engineerYoshihisa Okumura
in 1968
• Used to predict signal strength in urban/suburban areas.
• Is valid roughly in the 150-to-1920 MHz range
Technique used is
• Evaluation of free space loss
• Determine median attenuation
• Add correction gain factors for transmitter and receiver antenna heights
(from curves or equation) and area gain factor (from curves)
• Okumura developed a set of curves giving the median attenuation relative to free
space (Amu), in an urban area over a quasi-smooth terrain with a base station effective
antenna height (ht) of 200 m and amobile antenna height (hr) of 3 m.
• These curves were developed from extensive measurements using vertical omni-
directional antennas at both the base and mobile, and are plotted as a function of
frequency in the range 100–1920 MHz.
• To determine path loss using Okumura's model, the free space path loss between the
points of interest is first determined, and then the value of Amu(f, d) is added to it.
The model can be expressed as
L50- 50th percentile -i.e median value of propagation loss between Tx and Rx
measured in dB.
LF denotes the free-space-propagation loss
Amu (fc, d) is the correction factor
G (hte), G (hre) gain factors corresponding to the transmit and receive antenna
heights the hte, ( Base station antenna height) , hre(Mobile station antenna height)
respectively;
GArea is the gain due to the environment
Base station effectiveantenna height, hte = 200m and hre =3 m mobilestation
height
gain factors G (hte), G (hre) respectively are given as

**Base station antennas above 200m

gives positive gain and below 200m
give negative gain, hence 200m is
considered
• The quantity Amu (fc, d) is a correction factor as a function of the carrier
frequency fc and distance d.This hasbeen plotted for several values of fc, d

For example, from the Okumura model, the factor Amu at distance d = 5 km and fc =
1.8 GHz is given as

Amu (1.8 GHz, 5 km) = 28 dB

• The quantity GArea is a correction factor for various environments. It has been
computed and plotted for different frequencies for suburban, quasi-open, and open
areas.
•Example, the factor GArea for a suburban area at 1.8 GHz is given as
GArea = 12dB
Hata Model
The Hata model is another popular model
• Signal strength prediction
• Proposed by the Japanese engineer Masaharu Hata in his 1980
• Hata model presents an analytical approximation for the graphical-
information-based Okumura model
Okumura model and Hata Model are based on extensive Measurements
applied for path loss analysis
 Multipath Propagation
Most mobile transmissions are characterized by these non-LOS conditions
Reflection (size of obstacle is larger than the wavelength of radio signal)
Diffraction(Similar to scattering radio waves get deflected at edges of large
objects)
Refraction(signal passes from medium of low density to other medium of
high density)
Scattering (object/obstacle is of small size or equal size than the
wavelength of radio signal)

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 The most general case of signal reception, consisting of a direct path, a
reflected path, a scattered path, and a diffracted path.

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 Characteristics of wireless channels

Path loss
Fading
Interference
Doppler shift
Path Loss

Ratio of power of the transmitted signal to the power of same

signal received by reciever.
Dependent on radio frequency used and nature of terrain
Path loss models – Free space & Two ray
Free space – no attenuation of signals, only direct path
Pr(d) = Pt Gt Gr

Two ray – direct path & Reflected path

 Fading
Fluctuations in signal strength when received at the receiver.
Types of fading
(1) Fast/small scale fading
(2) slow/large scale fading.

➢ Fast fading – rapid fluctuations in amplitude, phase or multipath

delays.
➢ Slow fading – objects partially absorb the transmissions
Counter measure – Diversity & Adaptive modulation
• Interference
In communication, interference results into poor pictures or sounds being received on TV, radio or
mobile phones.
Types : (1) ACI (2) CCI (3) ISI
Interference Source Counter
measure
ACI-Adjacent Channel Interference • The interference caused to the desired signal (or channel) from Guard band
adjacent frequency signals is known as adjacent channel
interference.
• This interference is caused by leakage of frequencies from
imperfect filters into passband of desired channel.
CCI –Co channel Interference • The interference caused by transmitting at the same frequency Usage of
by two or more wireless systems is known as co-channel directional
interference. antennas,
• In order to handle huge number of calls with limited number of dynamic
channels frequency reuse concept is applied to the cellular channel
system. In frequency reuse same frequency is reused in multiple allocation
cells within their own boundaries without causing any
interference. These cells are known as co-channel cells.
• To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cell must be
separated by minimum distance
ISI-Inter symbol Interference • In OFDM based systems, the transmission takes place symbol by Adaptive
symbol. equalizatio
• Before the symbol transmission, symbols are packed with complex n
modulated data symbols. After the symbol is formed, CP (Cyclic Prefix)
is appended to each of the OFDM symbols individually.
• As the symbols travel one by one to the other end, the path from
transmit to receive end will introduce delay spread in time domain.
This results into OFDM symbol getting spread out and hence will
interfere with consecutive OFDM symbols. This is referred as ISI (Inter
Symbol Interference).
Doppler shift

Change in frequency when transmitter and receiver are mobile in

nature.
Higher frequency – when both move towards
Lower frequency – when both move away
➢ Consider vehicle moving at constant velocity V along path
segment having length d between points X &Y

➢ If it is receiving a signal from remote source S

Difference in the Path lengths travelled by the wave from
source S to the mobile at point X and Y is

➢ Where Δt is time required by mobile to travel

from X to Y
➢ ϴ is assumed to be same at X and Y as Source is
assumed to be very far away.
➢ Phase change in received signal due to
difference in path length is
 Factors Affecting Small Scale Fading
❑ Multipath propagation.
❑ Speed of the mobile.
❑ Speed of the surrounding objects.
❑ Transmission bandwidth of the signal.

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 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
In order to compare different multipath channels we need parameters which
quantify the multipath channel, they are:

1. Delay spread
2. Coherence bandwidth
3. Doppler spread
4. Coherence time

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Channel Estimation

In all communication the signal goes through a

medium (called channel) and the signal gets
distorted or various noise is added to the signal
while the signal goes through the channel.
To properly decode the received signal without
much errors are to remove the distortion and noise
applied by the channel from the received signal.
To do this, the first step is to figure out the
characteristics of the channel that the signal has
gone through. The technique/process to
characterize the channel is called 'channel
estimation'.
There are many different ways for channel estimation,
but fundamental concepts are similar. The process is
done as follow

i) set a mathematical model to correlate 'transmitted

signal' and 'received signal' using 'channel' matrix.

ii) Transmit a known signal (we normally called this as

'reference signal' or 'pilot signal') and detect the
received signal.

iii) By comparing the transmitted signal and the

received signal, we can figure out each elements of
channel matrix.
 General Algorithm

i) embed the set of predefined signal (This is called a reference signal)

ii) As these reference signal go through the channel, it get distorted (attenuated,
phase-shifted, noised) along with other signals

iii) we detect/decode the received reference signal at the receiver

iv) Compare the transmitted reference signal and the received reference signal and
find correlation between them.
Channel Estimation for SISO

• LTE SISO :estimate channel properties

(channel coefficient and noise estimate).

• Since this is SISO, reference signal is embedded onto only one antenna port (port 0).
• The vertical line in the resource map represents frequency domain. So I indexed each of reference
signal with f1, f2, f3...fn. Each reference symbol can be a complex number that can be plotted as
shown below.

• Each complex number (Reference Symbol) on the left (transmission side) is modified (distorted) to each
corresponding symbols on the right (recieved symbol).
•
• Channel Estimation is the process of finding correlation between the array of complex numbers on the
left and the array of complex numbers on the right.

• The detailed method of the estimation can very depending on the implementation. The method that
will be described here is based on the Open Source :
Estimation of Channel Coefficient

Since this is only one antenna, system model for

each transmitted reference signal and received
reference signal can be represented as
y() represents the array of received reference signal
x() represents the array of transmitted reference
signal()
h() represents the array of channel coefficient. f1,
f2,... just integer indices
• It is also called as training based channel estimation

• Training sequence of data known to receiver are multiplexed with information

symbols

• This data set is used at receiver for estimating CSI Channel state information.

• Let x(p) 1, x(p) 2 , x(p) 3 ,……. x(p) L(p) …….are pilot symbols

• The received output symbols be y (p) (1) , y (p) (2)…….. y (p) (L) (p)

• Each y (p) (k) is the output corresponding to transmitted symbol x (p) (k)

• Hence y (p) k = h x(p) (k) +n(k)

Diversity
• best tool available to combat the effects of multipath fading in a wireless channel and thereby ensure
reliable communication
• Diversity techniques can be employed to substantially improve the reliability of wireless communication,
while reducing the BER
• Diversity is based on the simple fact that independent wireless channels experience randomly independent levels of
fading
• probability that multiple independent wireless channels are simultaneously in a deep fade is drastically lower
compared to that of a single fading channel.
Diversity Techniques

• Diversity is a good technique applied in mobile communication receiver

circuits where there are multipath environments.

• The diversity techniques use the nature of the propagation path

characteristics for improving the sensitivity of receivers.

• It will improve the wireless links, at less cost. It does not require prior
training because a training sequence is not needed by a transmitter like
an equalizer.

• The diversity technique finds a way of analyzing signal paths for the
multipath cellular environment.

• The diversity decisions made at the receiver end and they are not known
to the transmitter.
“transmission of multiple copies of the information signal over independent
channels, thereby substantially reducing the chance of information loss due
to the erratic nature of the wireless channels which causes any one or a subset of
these channels to be in a deep fade”.
Content Beyond Syllabus
 Time Dispersion Parameters
❑ Mean excess delay
❑ RMSdelay spread
❑ Excess delay spread

These parameters can be determined from a power delay profile.

Mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is
defined by the equation .
−  a k 2 k  P(  )
k k
 = k
= h

 ak
2
 P(  ) k
k h

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 RMS delay spread is the square root of the second central
moment of the power delay profile and is defined by the equation
  =  2 − ( ) 2

 a 2k  k2  P (  k )  k2
k k
2= =
 a k2  P ( k )
k k

Typical values of rms delay spread are on the order of

microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channel and
on the order of nanoseconds in indoor radio channel
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 Maximum Excess Delay (X dB): Defined as the time delay value after which
the multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum multipath energy (not
necesarily belonging to the first arriving component). It is also called excessdelay
spread.

The maximum excess delay is defined as (x - 0), where 0 is the first arriving
signal and x is the maximum delay at which a multipath component is within X dB
of the strongest arriving multipath signal. The value of x is sometimes called the
excess delay spread of a power delay profile.

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 Coherence Bandwidth
❑ Used to Characterize multipath channel in frequency domain
❑ Statistical range of frequencies over which channel is flat
❑ Coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two frequency components
have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.
❑ Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bcare affected quite differently by
the channel.
❑ If the frequency correlation function is above 0.9 then coherence bandwidth is given as
Bc≈ 1/50στ
❑ If correlation is above 0.5, then as Bc≈ 1/5σ τ (This is called 50% coherence bandwidth)
❑ τ is rms delay spread.

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 For a multipath channel, σ is given as 1.37ms.
The 50% coherence bandwidth is given as: 1/5σ = 146kHz.
This means that, for a good transmission from a transmitter to a receiver, the
range of transmission frequency (channel bandwidth) should not exceed
146kHz, so that all frequencies in this band experience the same channel
characteristics.
Equalizers are needed in order to use transmission frequencies that are
separated larger than this value.
This coherence bandwidth is enough for an AMPS channel (30kHz band
needed for a channel), but is not enough for a GSM channel (200kHz needed
per channel).
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 Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth describe the time dispersive nature
of the channel in a local area.
They don’t offer information about the time varying nature of the channel
caused by relative motion of transmitter and receiver.
Doppler Spread and Coherence time are parameters which describe the
time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale region.

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 Doppler Spread
Measure of spectral broadening caused by motion, the time rate of change of
the mobile radio channel, and is defined as the range of frequencies over
which the received Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero.
When a pure sinusoidal tone of frequency fc is transmitted the received signal
spectrum called the Doppler spectrum will have components in the range fc
–f d to fc + f d . (f d is Doppler shift)
Doppler spread, BD, is defined as the maximum Doppler shift: fm = v/λ

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 Coherence Time
Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel impulse
response is essentially invariant. 0.423
Coherence time is also defined as: TC  16f =
9
2
m
fm
Coherence time definition implies that two signals arriving with a time
separation greater than TC are affected differently by the channel.
Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to
characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersive-ness of the
channel in the time domain.

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 Types of Small Scale Fading

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