

Introduction to Structure in Architecture: The role of structure as

fundamental to architectural form is introduced. Both aesthetic and practical
(load-bearing) requirements are acknowledged.

 Distinction between structural (load-carrying) and non-structural elements is

established.

 The structural system's function is defined as resisting applied loads and

transferring forces to the ground while maintaining geometry and
serviceability.

 Structural Requirements: The need for structures to achieve static

equilibrium under all loads (including static, wind and seismic) is
emphasized.

 Distinction between equilibrium (balancing of loads) and stability

(resistance to shape change from disturbances) is defined.

 The concept of bracing is introduced for stability.

 Additional structural requirements are outlined: adequate strength, material

selection, appropriate cross-sections and adequate rigidity (resistance to
deformation/deflection).

 The role of calculations in structural analysis is highlighted.

 Basic structural requirements summarised as achieving equilibrium,

geometric stability, adequate strength and adequate rigidity.

 Structural Types:Post-and-beam structures (horizontal spanning elements

on vertical supports) are introduced as the most common type. These are
subject to bending-type internal forces.

 Load-bearing wall structures are described, highlighting that walls, floors

and roofs act as structural elements. These typically have lower levels of
internal forces and smaller span sizes are normal.

 Panel structures are also mentioned.

 Vaults and domes are described as structures with internal forces primarily
compressive. They enable use of materials like masonry and unreinforced
concrete that have low tensile strength. Vaults and domes are efficient
structures.

 Tents and cable networks are presented as tensile equivalents of domes and
vaults.

 Structural Materials: Introduction to the key structural materials – steel,

masonry, timber, and reinforced concrete, and their properties are presented:

 Steel: Strong and used for tall buildings, slender elements, and long spans,
with various shapes available in prefabricated components.

 Masonry: Brittle with low tensile strength, suitable for compressive loads,
used in walls, piers, arches, vaults and domes, and requiring lateral support.

 Timber: Capable of handling tension and compression, lighter but less

strong than steel or reinforced concrete. It's typically used in smaller
structures or parts of larger masonry structures.

 Material selection factors – strength, elasticity, specific gravity, durability,

fire performance, cost, availability and environmental impact, as well as
conditions of manufacture and finishing, are highlighted.

 Structural Design: Architectural concepts influence structural makeup. The

architect's role as a structural designer is noted.

 Design approaches are categorized: structure ignored (initial design without

structural consideration), structure accepted (structural requirements
influence building forms), structure symbolized (structure is a visual element
of architecture).

 Factors influencing structural design are summarized: the effect of scale,

cost, internal planning, and exterior treatment.

 Material choice as an aesthetic and technical decision, with each material

having distinct visual qualities.

 Limitations of a chosen material must be taken into account.

 Design Methods :Difference between analysis (understanding forces' effect)
and design (creating a structure to meet specific requirements) is introduced.

 National building codes provide guidelines for structural design. Following

codes blindly is discouraged; designers should question code provisions.

 Structures must carry reserve load for safety, accounting for uncertainties,
errors in fabrication, and unanticipated loads or material strength.

 Rational methods for selecting appropriate structural systems are proposed.

 Resisting systems like shear walls and moment frames are introduced, each
having distinct strengths for certain building types.

 Design should address strength, stability, and serviceability – including

issues like tension, compression, buckling, and deflection.

 Structural Efficiency: Structural efficiency is defined in terms of weight

and load-carrying capacity.

 Relationship between structure form and internal force is critical (axial vs

bending). Axial forces can be resisted more efficiently.

 Classification of elements as form-active (axial stress), non-form-active

(bending stress), and semi-form-active (combined stress) based on their
longitudinal axis and direction of load.

 Material Properties: Material properties such as stress (force per unit area)
and strain (deformation per unit length) are described.

 Young’s Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity) is introduced to represent the

stress-strain relationship.

 Concepts of yield stress (point of permanent deformation) and ultimate

stress (point of fracture) are defined.

 The terms ‘brittle’ and ‘ductile’ materials are described in relation to their
failure modes.

 Allowable stress as the maximum stress permissible, typically defined by

building codes.
 Cross-Sectional Properties: Geometric properties of cross-sections are
crucial for managing stresses and deflections.

 Area, center of gravity, and neutral axis are defined and their role in
structural behavior are introduced.

 The effects of tension and compression above and below the neutral axis are
described, which results in bending and deflection of the member under
load.

 Reinforced Concrete (RC) Structural Members: Concrete as a versatile

material made with sand, gravel, cement, and water is introduced.

 Concrete's properties: durability, moldability, fire resistance, compressive

strength and weakness in tension.

 Mechanical properties of concrete such as compressive strength, tensile

strength, and modulus of elasticity are discussed.

 Time dependent characteristics of shrinkage and creep are defined.

 Reinforcing steel is introduced and its properties are discussed. Steel has
rough texture with lugs for creating effective anchorage, and is important for
minimising creep and crack widths.

 Stress-strain curves of reinforcing steel are explained and how steel imparts
ductility to otherwise brittle material.

 Grades of reinforcing steel (40, 50, 60, 75, 90, 100 and 120 ksi) based on
their yield strengths are mentioned.

 Prestressed concrete is described as a system where internal stresses are

intentionally induced to counteract tensile stresses during loading.

 Prestressing steel is available as wires, strands and high strength bars with
tensile strengths significantly larger than normal reinforcing bars.

 Prestressing and post-tensioning stages are outlined.

 Structural Connections:Structural systems transfer loads through elements

and their connections.
 Connections are designed for specific types of loads.

 Understanding forces at each level of support is important.

 Degrees of freedom (translation and rotation) at joints are explained.

 Displacement boundary conditions and supports are described.

 Reinforced Concrete (RC) Structural Member SpecificsSteel and

concrete bond together to resist forces.

 Advantages of reinforced concrete are stated as economy, fire resistance,

rigidity, low maintenance, material availability and mouldability.

 Disadvantages of reinforced concrete are stated as low tensile strength, the

need for formwork and shoring, and relatively low strength per unit weight
or volume.

 Beams: Beams defined as horizontal load bearing members. Support type

affects performance, analysis and design. Determinate and indeterminate
beams are introduced. Beams are stressed when they bend, resulting in
tension and compression. Assumptions for design of beams are listed.

 Columns: Columns defined as vertical members carrying loads in

compression and bending. Columns are differentiated from walls on the
basis of length to thickness ratio. The slenderness ratio and effective length
of columns are key factors. The support condition may affect the effective
length of a column. Short/stocky and long/slender columns are introduced,
with their different failure modes. The concept of buckling is introduced as
the mode of failure in compression members.

 Slabs: Slabs are load bearing floor elements. One-way and two-way
spanning slabs are discussed with differences highlighted between the two.
Different slab options are presented, such as flat plates, flat slabs, and ribbed
or waffle slabs. Slab dimensions are defined, dependent on structural and
load factors. The choice of type of slab is dependent on many factors. The
benefit of beamless slabs is highlighted in terms of minimising the story
height, and the limitations relating to resistance to horizontal loads using
frame action.
  Load Path:Load path is defined as the route forces take through a structure
to the ground. Loads travel downwards from roof elements to the
foundation.

 Distortion caused by loads in load path allows structures to resist them.

 Understanding load paths is essential for safe structural analysis and design.

 Structures designed for their load forces remain stable.

 Lateral loads (horizontal) require different load path, typically through shear
walls, moment frames or steel bracing.

 Shear walls, and moment frames as mechanisms to resist lateral loads are
explained.

Cast of Characters (Principle Concepts & Terms):

Note that this document is not about specific individuals, but rather concepts and
elements. Therefore, the following "characters" are key terms and ideas.

 Structure: The fundamental load-bearing system of a building.

 Structural Elements: Components of the structure that carry loads (e.g.,

beams, columns, walls).

 Non-Structural Elements: Components of a building that do not carry

loads (e.g., cladding, partitions).

 Structural System: The arrangement of structural elements working

together.

 Loads: Forces acting on a structure (e.g., gravity, wind, seismic).

 Static Equilibrium: A state where all forces acting on a structure are

balanced.

 Stability: Ability of a structure to resist changes in shape.

 Bracing: Elements providing lateral support for stability.

 Strength: Ability of a structural element to resist failure.

 Rigidity: Resistance to deformation or deflection.

 Structural Analysis: Process of determining forces within a structure.

 Equilibrium: A condition in which the sum of all forces and moments

acting on a body is zero.

 Static Loads: Loads applied slowly and without rapid fluctuations.

 Post-and-Beam Structures: Horizontal elements supported by vertical

elements.

 Loadbearing Wall Structures: Where walls, floors and roofs all act as
structural elements.

 Vaults and Domes: Curved structures primarily under compression.

 Tents and Cable Networks: Tension structures analogous to vaults and

domes.

 Steel: A strong and versatile structural material.

 Masonry: Material with low tensile strength, suited to compressive loads.

 Timber: A lighter structural material that handles both tension and

compression.

 Reinforced Concrete (RC): Concrete combined with steel reinforcement.

 Architectural Design: Overall concept for a building.

 Structural Design: Process of ensuring structural stability and integrity.

 Analysis: Studying how forces affect a structure.

 Design: Creating a structure to meet specific requirements.

 National Building Codes: Guidelines for structural design.

 Safety Factor: Reserve capacity in structures for safety.

 Shear Walls: Elements resisting lateral forces.

 Moment Frames: Rigid frames resisting bending forces.

 Structural Efficiency: Load-carrying capacity relative to material weight.

 Form-Active Elements: Elements under axial stress.

 Non-Form-Active Elements: Elements under bending stress.

 Semi-Form-Active Elements: Elements under combined stress.

 Stress: Force per unit area within a material.

 Strain: Deformation per unit length of a material.

 Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity): A measure of a material's

stiffness.

 Yield Stress: Stress point at which permanent deformation starts.

 Ultimate Stress: Maximum stress a material can withstand before failure.

 Brittle Material: Material that cracks or breaks with little plastic

deformation.

 Ductile Material: Material that exhibits significant plastic deformation

before failure.

 Allowable Stress: Maximum stress permitted in design codes.

 Cross-Sectional Properties: Geometric characteristics like area and centre

of gravity.

 Centroid: The geometrical centre of a shape or section

 Neutral Axis: Axis within a beam that has no stress under bending.

 Deflection: Displacement of a structural member under load.

 Concrete: A construction material made with sand, gravel, cement, and

water.

 Compressive Strength: The maximum compressive stress a material can

withstand before failure.
 Tensile Strength: The maximum tensile stress a material can withstand
before failure.

 Modulus of Elasticity The measure of stiffness of a material.

 Shrinkage Decrease in volume of concrete during hardening and drying.

 Creep: Increase in strain under sustained stress.

 Reinforcement: Steel bars or mesh used to increase the tensile strength of

concrete.

 Prestressed Concrete: Concrete with internal compressive stress introduced

before loading.

 Prestressing Steel: High strength steel wires, strands or bars used in

prestressed concrete.

 Connection The joining of structural elements.

 Degrees of Freedom: Possible movements of a joint.

 Displacement Boundary Conditions: Restraints on movement at support

points.

 Beams: Horizontal structural members carrying load.

 Determinate Beams: Beams that can be analysed by the equations of

statics.

 Indeterminate Beams: Beams that can not be analysed by the equations of

statics alone.

 Columns: Vertical structural members carrying compressive loads.

 Slenderness Ratio: Measure of a column’s susceptibility to buckling.

 Effective Length: Length of column used in buckling calculations,

dependent on the end conditions.

 Short/Stocky Columns: Columns with lower slenderness ratio.

 Long/Slender Columns: Columns with higher slenderness ratio.

 Buckling: Instability of a column under compression.

 Slabs: Horizontal floor elements.

 One-Way Spanning Slabs: Slabs supported on two opposite sides.

 Two-Way Spanning Slabs: Slabs supported on all four sides.

 Ribbed or Waffle Slabs: Joist type floor elements which remove some
concrete from the lower half of the slab.

 Load Path: Route forces take through a structure to the ground.

 Lateral Loads: Horizontal forces acting on a building.