DHARAM SAMAJ INTER COLLEGE
ALIGARH
PROJECT FILE
STUDY OF CANCER
12TH BIOLOGY
SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:
DR. GIRISH SHANDILYA NAME: RAHUL
(ASSISTANT PROFESSOR) ROLL NO. 08
BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT COURSE: 12TH B
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that RAHUL a student of 12TH B at DHARAM SAMAJ INTER
COLLEGE, ALIGARH, has successfully completed the project titled
"STUDY OF CANCER" during the academic session 2024-25.
The project was conducted under the guidance of DR. GIRISH SHANDILYA and was
completed as part of the curriculum requirements for BIOLOGY.
Through this project, RAHUL demonstrated a commendable understanding of the topic,
critical thinking, creativity, and dedication. The project outcomes reflect thorough research,
practical application, and adherence to the objectives outlined at the beginning of the task.
DR. GIRISH SHANDILYA
(Project Guide/Biology Teacher)
DHARAM SAMAJ INTER COLLEGE, ALIGARH
DR. KAUSHLENDRA KUMAR
(Principal)
DHARAM SAMAJ INTER COLLEGE, ALIGARH
ABSTRACT
Cancer is a multifaceted disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth, genetic mutations, and the
ability to evade immune responses. This study explores the biological underpinnings of cancer,
including its molecular and cellular mechanisms, and examines advancements in prevention,
detection, and treatment. Significant progress has been made in early detection through imaging
technologies and biomarker identification, enabling timely intervention and improving patient
outcomes. Advances in therapeutic approaches, including immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and
precision medicine, have transformed cancer care, offering personalized and more effective
treatments.
Prevention plays a critical role in reducing cancer incidence, with public health initiatives promoting
healthy lifestyles, such as smoking cessation and balanced diets, as well as vaccination programs like
those against HPV. However, challenges persist, including disparities in access to care, the increasing
burden of cancer in developing countries, and the emergence of drug-resistant cancers.
This study emphasizes the importance of continued research and global collaboration in addressing
these challenges. Emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence and nanotechnology, promise
to enhance diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities. With sustained efforts and multidisciplinary
approaches, the ultimate goal of reducing cancer’s impact and improving survival rates remains
achievable, paving the way for a healthier future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to everyone who supported me throughout the
completion of this project, "Study of Cancer"
First and foremost, I extend my sincere thanks to Dr. Girish Shandilya, my project guide, for their
invaluable guidance, encouragement, and constructive feedback. Their expertise and insights were
instrumental in shaping the direction and quality of this work.
I am also deeply thankful to the principal, Dr. Kaushlendra Kumar, and the staff of
Dharam Samaj Inter College, Aligarh for providing the necessary resources and a conducive
environment to carry out this project.
A special word of appreciation goes to my family and friends for their unwavering support and
encouragement, which motivated me throughout the journey. Their assistance and belief in my
abilities have been a source of strength and inspiration.
Lastly, I am grateful to all those whose contributions, directly or indirectly, have helped me in
successfully completing this project. This experience has been immensely enriching, and I have
gained a deeper understanding of the topic as well as valuable skills that will benefit me in the future.
Thank you all for your support and encouragement.
Rahul
12th B
Dharam Samaj Inter College, Aligarh
INTRODUCTION
CANCER:
Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to
other parts of the body.
Cancer can start almost anywhere in the human body, which is made up of trillions of
cells. Cancerous tumors spread into or invade, nearby tissues and can travel to distant
places in the body to form new tumors.
WHAT ARE CANCER CELLS?
Cancer cells are cells that divide continuously, forming solid tumors or flooding the
blood with abnormal cells. Cell division is a normal process used by the body for
growth and repair. Healthy cells stop dividing when there is no longer a need for more
daughter cells, but cancer cells continuous to produce copies. They also spread from
one part of the body to another. Cancer cells have histological features visible under
the microscope. The nucleus is often large and irregular and the cytoplasm may also
display abnormalities.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CANCER CELLS AND NORMAL CELLS:
Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways. For instance, cancer cells:
• grow in the absence of signals telling them to grow. Normal cells only grow
when they receive such signals.
• ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or to die (a process
known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis).
• invade into nearby areas and spread to other areas of the body. Normal cells stop
growing when they encounter other cells, and most normal cells do not move
around the body.
• tell blood vessels to grow toward tumors. These blood vessels supply
tumors with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products from
tumors.
• hide from the immune system. The immune system normally eliminates
damaged or abnormal cells.
• trick the immune system into helping cancer cells stay alive and grow.
• accumulate multiple changes in their chromosomes, such as duplications and
deletions of chromosome parts. Some cancer cells
have double the normal number of chromosomes
TWO MAIN TYPES OF CANCER:
• Benign
• Malignant
Benign: These tumors are not cancerous. They do not invade nearby tissue or spread to
other parts of the body. If a doctor removes them, they do not generally return.
Malignant: Malignant tumors are cancerous. The cells can grow and spread to other
parts of the body.
HOW DOES CANCER DEVELOP:
Cancer is caused by certain changes to genes, the basic physical unit of inheritance.
Genes are arranged in long strands of tightly packed DNA called chromosomes.
GENETIC CHANGE THAT CAUSE CANCER:
• of errors that occur as cells divide.
• of damage to DNA caused by harmful substances in the environment,
such as the chemicals in tobacco smoke and ultraviolet rays from the sun.
• they were inherited from our parents.
TYPES OF CANCER:
There are five main types of cancer.
These include:
• CARNICOMA: This type of cancer affects organs and glands, such
as the lungs, breasts, pancreas and skin. Carcinoma is the most common
type of cancer. Carcinomas begin in different epithelial cell types such
as Adenocarcinoma, Basal cell carcinoma, Squamous cell carcinoma,
Transitional cell carcinoma.
• SARCOMA: This cancer affects soft or connective tissues, such as
muscle, fat, bone, cartilage or blood vessels. Osteosarcoma is the most
common cancer of bone. The most common types of soft tissue
sarcoma are leiomyosarcoma, Kaposi
sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, liposarcoma, and
dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans.
• MELANOMA: Melanoma is cancer that begins in cells that
become melanocytes, which are specialized cells that make melanin
(the pigment that gives skin its colour). Most melanomas form on the
skin, but melanomas can also form in other pigmented tissues, such as
the eye.
• LYMPHOMA: This cancer affects your lymphocytes or white
blood cells. There are two main types of lymphoma: Hodgkin
lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
• LEUKEMIA: Cancers that begin in the blood-forming tissue of the
bone marrow are called leukemia. These cancers do not form solid
tumors. Instead, large numbers of abnormal blood cells build up.
CANCER STATISTICS IN INDIA:
India ranks third among nations in terms of highest number of cancers. Over 13 lakh people
in India suffer from cancers every year, as per the National Cancer Registry Programme
report. Sedentary lifestyles, increase in urban pollution, in addition to rise in obesity,
tobacco and alcohol consumption, are said to be the reasons behind the rise.
CAUSES OF CANCER:
• Unhealthy lifestyle
• Toxic environment
• Radiation exposure
• Hormone therapy
SYMPTOMS:
Cancer symptoms can vary significantly for each person.
• Unexplained weight loss.
• Chronic tiredness
• Persistent pain.
• Fever that occurs mostly at night.
• Skin changes.
FOUR STATES OF CANCER:
• Stage I: Cancer is localized to a small area and hasn’t spread to
lymph nodes or other tissues.
• Stage II: Cancer has grown, but it hasn’t spread.
• Stage III: Cancer has grown larger and has possibly spread to
lymph nodes or other tissues.
• Stage IV: Cancer has spread to other organs or areas of your body.
This stage is also referred to as metastatic or advanced cancer.
DIAGNOSIS:
Diagnosing cancer at its earliest stages often provides the best chance for a cure.
Physical exam: Your doctor may feel areas of your body for lumps that may indicate
cancer. During a physical exam, your doctor may look for abnormalities, such as
changes in skin colour or enlargement of an organ, that may indicate the presence of
cancer.
Laboratory tests: Laboratory tests, such as urine and blood tests, may help your
doctor identify abnormalities that can be caused by cancer. For instance, in people with
leukemia, a common blood test called complete blood count may reveal an unusual
number or type of white blood cells.
Imaging tests: Imaging tests allow your doctor to examine your bones and internal
organs in a non-invasive way. Imaging tests used in diagnosing cancer may include a
computerized tomography (CT) scan, bone scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
positron emission tomography (PET) scan, ultrasound and X-ray, among others.
Biopsy: During a biopsy, doctor collects a sample of cells for testing in the
laboratory. There are several ways of collecting a sample. Different methods of biopsy
procedure depend on the type of cancer and its location. In most situations, a biopsy is
the only way to definitively diagnose cancer.
In the laboratory, doctors look at cell samples under the microscope. Normal cells look
uniform, with similar sizes and orderly organization. Cancer cells look less orderly,
with varying sizes and without apparent organization.
BIOPSY:
CT SCAN:
TREATMENT:
Surgery: The goal of surgery is to remove the cancer or as much of the cancer as possible.
Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells.
Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy uses high-powered energy beams, such as X-
rays and protons, to kill cancer cells. Radiation treatment can come from a machine
outside your body (external beam radiation), or it can be placed inside your body
(brachytherapy).
Bone marrow transplant: Bone marrow transplant is also known as a stem cell
transplant. Bone marrow is the material inside our bones that makes blood cells. A
bone marrow transplant can use our own cells or cells from a donor.
A bone marrow transplant allows doctor to use higher doses of chemotherapy to treat
cancer. It may also be used to replace diseased bone marrow.
Immunotherapy: Immunotherapy, also known as biological therapy, uses our
body's immune system to fight cancer. Cancer can survive unchecked in our body
because your immune system doesn't recognize it as an intruder. Immunotherapy can
help your immune system detect the cancer and attack it.
Hormone therapy: Some types of cancer are fueled by your body's hormones.
Examples include breast cancer and prostate cancer. Removing those hormones from
the body or blocking their effects may cause the cancer cells to stop growing.
Targeted drug therapy: Targeted drug treatment focuses on specific
abnormalities within cancer cells that allow them to survive.
Clinical trials: Clinical trials are studies to investigate new ways of treating cancer.
Thousands of cancer clinical trials are underway.
ADVANTAGES:
• Chemotherapy may shrink your cancer or slow down its growth, which may
help you live longer.
• Chemotherapy after surgery, may reduce the chances of the cancer coming back.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Chemotherapy can cause side effects.
• Cancer treatments can cause many other side effects, including tiredness,
trouble eating, and depression.
CONCLUSION
Cancer remains one of the most complex and pressing challenges in modern medicine and
public health. Over decades, significant progress has been made in understanding its
biological mechanisms, risk factors, and treatment modalities. The study of cancer has
revealed it to be a multifaceted disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth, genetic
mutations, and the ability to evade immune responses. While these complexities present
challenges, they also provide opportunities for innovative research and targeted interventions.
Advances in early detection and personalized treatment strategies have led to improved
outcomes for many patients. Techniques such as genetic profiling, immunotherapy, and
precision medicine have redefined cancer care, enabling treatments to be tailored to an
individual’s unique genetic makeup and disease characteristics. Furthermore, public health
campaigns emphasizing prevention—through lifestyle changes such as smoking cessation,
healthy diets, and regular screenings—have contributed to reducing cancer incidence in
certain populations.
Despite these achievements, disparities in access to care, rising cancer rates in developing
countries, and the emergence of drug-resistant cancers underline the ongoing challenges.
Addressing these issues requires a global, multidisciplinary approach that combines research,
education, and equitable healthcare delivery. Continued investment in basic and translational
research is essential to uncover new therapeutic targets and improve existing treatments.
Moreover, integrating novel technologies like artificial intelligence and machine learning into
oncology can enhance early diagnosis, treatment planning, and patient monitoring.
The fight against cancer is not solely a scientific endeavor; it is a collective societal effort.
Collaboration among governments, private sectors, researchers, and communities will be
pivotal in reducing the burden of cancer worldwide. As research continues to advance, there
is hope that cancer may one day become a manageable or even curable condition, ushering in
a new era of health and longevity for future generations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-
20370594
2. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer
3. https://ebismedical.com/cancer-treatments/
4. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12194-cancer
