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General Zoology
Chapter 4
Animal Reproduction
Self-Learning Module in Genetics (CASNS 1A) Estigoy., 2022
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Chapter 4
Animal Reproduction
Introduction
A population transcends finite lifespan only by reproduction, the creation of new
individuals from existing ones. Reproduction is necessary for the survival of a species of
organisms. In the animal kingdom, there are innumerable ways on how specific species of
animals reproduce.
In this module, students will be able to understand more about the process and types of
reproductions that is being exhibited by organisms found in the animal kingdom.
Specific Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Distinguish Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
2. Identify and understand different types of asexual reproduction
3. Compare and contrast the advantage and disadvantage of Asexual and Sexual
Reproduction
4. Identify and understand the process and types of fertilization.
Duration
Chapter 4: Animal Reproduction = 9 hours
(3 hour discussion; 6 hours
assessment)
Lesson Proper
Asexual Reproduction
- Produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent because the offspring
are all clones of the original parent.
- A single individual can produce offspring asexually and large numbers of offspring
can be produced quickly.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
1. Fission
- also called binary fission,
- After a period of growth, the organism splits into two separate organisms.
2. Budding
- Form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or
body region leading to a separation from the original organism into two individuals.
- Commonly observed in invertebrate animals such as hydras and corals
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Figure 4.1. Hydra that undergoes budding
(Source: https://eschooltoday.com/learn/buddin/)
3. Fragmentation
- It is the process of breaking of the body into two parts with subsequent
regeneration.
- If the animal is capable of fragmentation, and the part is big enough, a separate
individual will regrow
- Commonly observe in some flatworms and echinoderms
Figure 4.2. Fragmentation and Regeneration in Starfish
(Source: https://niwa.co.nz/blogs/critteroftheweek/201)
4. Parthenogenesis
- It is a form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a complete
individual without being fertilized.
- The resulting offspring can be either haploid or diploid, depending on the
process and the species.
- Parthenogenesis occurs in invertebrates such as water flees, rotifers, aphids, stick
insects, some ants, wasps, and bees.
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Advantage of Asexual Reproduction
a. Rapid rates of asexual reproduction may allow for a speedy response to
environmental changes if individuals have mutations.
b. Colonization of new habitats may be easier when an individual does not need to find
a mate to reproduce.
Sexual Reproduction
- Sexual reproduction is the combination of (usually haploid) reproductive cells from
two individuals to form a third (usually diploid) unique offspring.
- Sexual reproduction produces offspring with novel combinations of genes
• Hermaphroditism
- occurs in animals where one
individual has both male and
female reproductive parts.
Invertebrates such as earthworms,
slugs, tapeworms and snails,
- Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize
or may mate with another of their
species, fertilizing each other and
both producing offspring. Self-
fertilization is common in animals
that have limited mobility or are Figure 4.3. Hermaphroditism in Worms
not motile, such as barnacles and (Source: https://discover.hubpages.com/education/Earthworms-
and-Reproduction)
clams
• Sequential Hermaphroditism
- Sequential hermaphroditism in
which an individual reverses its sex
during its lifetime is another
remarkable reproductive pattern.
- Sequential hermaphrodite is
protogynous (female first), while
other species are protandrous (male
first).
Figure 4.4. Clownfish an example of Protandrous animal
(Source:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amphiprion_ocella
ris_(Clown_anemonefish)_by_Nick_Hobgood.jpg)
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Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction
Fertilization, the union of sperm and egg plays an important part in sexual reproduction.
It can be in the form of:
External fertilization
- External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and
sperm are released into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes
place.
- Many fishes and amphibians that use external fertilization exhibit mating behaviors and
courtships.
- Environmental cues such as temperature or day length cause all individuals of a
population to release gametes at once. Chemical signals from one individual releasing
gametes may trigger gamete release in others.
- External fertilization in an aquatic environment protects the eggs from drying out.
Broadcast spawning can result in a greater mixture of the genes within a group, leading to
higher genetic diversity and a greater chance of species survival in a hostile environment.
Internal fertilization
- Internal fertilization occurs most often in land-based animals, although some aquatic
animals also use this method.
Types of Internal Fertilization
• Oviparity
- fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body and develop there, receiving
nourishment from the yolk that is a part of the egg.
- This occurs in most bony fish, many reptiles, some cartilaginous fish, most
amphibians, two mammals, and all birds.
• Viviparity
- the young develop within the female, receiving nourishment from the mother’s
blood through a placenta.
- Commonly observed in most mammals
• Ovoviviparity
- fertilized eggs are retained in the female, but the embryo obtains its
nourishment from the egg’s yolk and the young are fully developed when they
are hatched.
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Advantages of Internal Fertilization
• Internal fertilization has the advantage of protecting the fertilized egg from
dehydration on land.
• The embryo is isolated within the female, which limits predation on the young.
• Internal fertilization enhances the fertilization of eggs by a specific male.
• Fewer offspring are produced through this method, but their survival rate is higher
than that for external fertilization
• Reproductive organs evolved with the development of gonads that produce sperm and
eggs.
Pheromones
• Pheromones are chemical signals released by one organism that influence the
behavior of other individuals of the same species. Many pheromones function as mate
attractants.
Evolution of Reproductive Structures in Animals
• Most insects have separate sexes with complex reproductive system where sperm are
developed in a pair of testes and stored in two seminal vesicles. Female develops eggs
in a pair of ovaries and are conveyed through ducts into the vagina where fertilization
occurs. In many species, the female reproductive system includes a spermathecae, a
sac in which sperm may be stored for a year or more.
• Non-mammals, such as birds and reptiles, have a common body opening, called a
cloaca, for the digestive, excretory and reproductive systems.
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For more discussion about this topic, visit the following link:
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Conce
pts_in_Biology_(OpenStax)/18%3A_Animal_Reproduction_and_Development/18.01%3A_
How_Animals_Reproduce
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/parthenogenesis-how-animals-have-
virgin-births
Additional Resources
• Campbell, Neil A. et. Al (2005). Biology 7th Edition. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
• Castro, Peter and Michael E. Huber. (2016). Marine Biology. 10th ed. new York:
McGrow-Hill Companies, Inc.
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/reproduction-methods/
• https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/18-1-how-animals-reproduce
Self-Learning Module in Genetics (CASNS 1A) Estigoy., 2022
