Animal Reproduction

Reproduction is the process of producing individuals of the same kind. Most organisms
reproduce by mating, which increases the genetic variability of the organism. The males and
females have separate reproductive organs known as gonads. These gonads produce gametes that
fuse together to form a single cell called the zygote.

Few animals such as earthworms, snails, slugs, etc. are hermaphrodites and possess male and
female reproductive organs in the same organism.

Hermaphroditism

Hermaphroditism occurs in animals in which one individual has both male and female
reproductive systems. Invertebrates such as earthworms, slugs, tapeworms, and snails are often
hermaphroditic. Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize, but typically they will mate with another of
their species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring. Self-fertilization is more
common in animals that have limited mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles and clams.
Many species have specific mechanisms in place to prevent self-fertilization, because it is an
extreme form of inbreeding and usually produces less fit offspring.

Sex Determination

Mammalian sex is determined genetically by the combination of X and Y chromosomes.

Individuals homozygous for X (XX) are female and heterozygous individuals (XY) are male. In
mammals, the presence of a Y chromosome causes the development of male characteristics and
its absence results in female characteristics. The XY system is also found in some insects and
plants.

Sexual Reproduction in Animals

The process in which the male and female gametes fuse together to form a new individual is
called sexual reproduction. Let us have a brief account of the human reproductive organs and
their role in reproduction.

Reproductive Organs

The male reproductive organs comprise a pair of testes, sperm ducts, and a penis. The sperms are
produced by the testes. The sperms are very small in size with a head, a middle piece, and a tail.
The female reproductive organs comprise a pair of ovaries, oviducts, and the uterus. The eggs
(ova) are produced by the ovaries. The development of the baby takes place in the uterus. A
mature egg is released into the oviduct every month.

Process of Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Fertilization

The semen contains millions of sperm. A single sperm fuses with the ova during fertilization.
The nuclei of the egg and the sperm fuse together to form a single nucleus. Thus, a zygote is
formed.

Fertilization is of two types:

Internal Fertilization

The fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female is known as internal fertilization.
For eg., humans, cows, dogs, etc. This method is more prevalent in terrestrial animals. However,
some aquatic animals also adopt this method. This may take place by direct introduction of
sperms by the male in the female reproductive tract, or the male deposits the sperms in the
environment which is picked up by the female in her reproductive tract.

There are three ways by which offspring are produced by internal fertilization:

Oviparity– The fertilized eggs are laid outside, where they receive nourishment from the yolk.

Ovoviviparity– The fertilized eggs are retained in the female’s body where they receive
nourishment from the yolk. The eggs are laid right before they are hatched.

Viviparity– The offspring are born directly instead of hatching from the eggs. They receive
nutrition from the mother. This can be seen in mammals.

External Fertilization

The fertilization that takes place outside the female is called external fertilization. For eg., frogs,
and fish. Most fertilization takes place during the process of spawning. Environmental signals
such as water temperature trigger spawning.
Oviparous and viviparous animals are two different groups of animals, which are classified on
the basis of fertilization. The main difference between oviparous and viviparous animals are
listed below:

Difference between oviparous and viviparous

Oviparous Viviparous
Egg laying animals Animals that give birth to the young ones
Fertilization could either be internal or Fertilization is internal
external
Nutrient is provided by the egg yolk Nutrient is provided by the mother through
the placenta
There is little or no development of the The embryo develops entirely inside the
embryo inside the mother mother
There is fewer chances of survival since the The young one is protected inside the mother
eggs are laid outside the body and so the chances of survival are more
Examples are insects, hen,fish, amphibians Examples are humans, dogs, cats, horse etc
etc

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

Besides sexual reproduction, the other major type of reproduction seen in the animal kingdom is
asexual reproduction. This type of reproduction is mostly observed in lower organisms and
unicellular microbes.

It is the process in which a new individual is formed by the involvement of a single parent
without the involvement of the gamete formation. The individuals produced are genetically and
morphologically similar. The cells divide by mitotic division and no fertilization takes place. The
division occurs very rapidly.

Types Of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction is of the following types:

Binary Fission

It is seen in amoeba and euglena. The parent cell undergoes mitosis and increases in size. The
nucleus also divides. Two identical daughter cells are obtained, each containing a nucleus.
Prokaryotes like bacteria majorly reproduce by binary fission.
Budding

In this, the offspring grows out of the body of the parent. It remains attached to the parent until it
matures. After maturation, it detaches itself from the parent and lives as an individual organism.
This form of reproduction is most common in Hydras.

Fragmentation

In some organisms like Planarians, when the body of an organism breaks into several pieces each
piece grows into an individual offspring. This is known as fragmentation. It can occur through
accidental damage by predators or otherwise, or as a natural form of reproduction. In a few
animals such as sea stars, a broken arm grows into a complete organism.

Regeneration

It is a modified form of fragmentation and occurs mostly in Echinoderms. When a part of an

organism, like an arm, detaches from the parent body, it grows into a completely new individual.
This is known as regeneration.

Parthenogenesis

This is a form of asexual reproduction where the egg develops without fertilization. This process
occurs in bees, wasps, ants, aphids, rotifers, etc. Ants, wasps, and bees produce haploid males.
Parthenogenesis has been observed in a few vertebrates such as hammerhead sharks, Komodo
dragons, and blacktop sharks when the females were isolated from the males.

The resulting offspring can be either haploid or diploid, depending on the process in the species.
Parthenogenesis occurs in invertebrates such as water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, and
ants, wasps, and bees. Ants, bees, and wasps use parthenogenesis to produce haploid males
(drones). The diploid females (workers and queens) are the result of a fertilized egg.

Some vertebrate animals—such as certain reptiles, amphibians, and fish—also reproduce through
parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis has been observed in species in which the sexes were
separated in terrestrial or marine zoos. Two female Komodo dragons, a hammerhead shark, and a
blacktop shark have produced parthenogenic young when the females have been isolated from
males. It is possible that the asexual reproduction observed occurred in response to unusual
circumstances and would normally not occur.
Glossary

asexual reproduction: a mechanism that produces offspring that are genetically identical to the
parent

budding: a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of an organism
leading to a separation from the original animal into two individuals

external fertilization: the fertilization of eggs by sperm outside an animal’s body, often during
spawning

fission: (also, binary fission) a form of asexual reproduction in which an organism splits into two
separate organisms or two parts that regenerate the missing portions of the body

fragmentation: the breaking of an organism into parts and the growth of a separate individual
from each part

hermaphroditism: the state of having both male and female reproductive structures within the
same individual

internal fertilization: the fertilization of eggs by sperm inside the body of the female

oviparity: a process by which fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body and develop
there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of the egg

ovoviparity: a process by which fertilized eggs are retained within the female; the embryo
obtains its nourishment from the egg’s yolk, and the young are fully developed when they are
hatched

parthenogenesis: a form of asexual reproduction in which an egg develops into a complete

individual without being fertilized

sex determination: the mechanism by which the sex of individuals in sexually reproducing
organisms is initially established