Reproduction is a marvelous culmination of individual transcendence.
Individual
organisms come and go, but, to a certain extent, organisms "transcend" time by
reproducing offspring. Let's take a look at reproduction in animals.
What Is Reproduction?
In a nutshell, reproduction is the creation of a new individual or individuals from
previously existing individuals. In animals, this can occur in two primary ways: through
asexual reproduction and through sexual reproduction. Let's look at asexual
reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, one individual produces offspring that are genetically identical to
itself. These offspring are produced by mitosis. There are many invertebrates, including
sea stars and sea anemones for example, that produce by asexual reproduction.
Common forms of asexual reproduction include:
Budding
In this form of asexual reproduction, an offspring grows out of the body of the
parent.
Hydras exhibit this type of reproduction.
Gemmules (Internal Buds)
In this form of asexual reproduction, a parent releases a specialized mass of cells
that can develop into offspring.
Sponges exhibit this type of reproduction.
Fragmentation
In this type of reproduction, the body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces,
each of which can produce an offspring.
Planarians exhibit this type of reproduction.
Regeneration
In regeneration, if a piece of a parent is detached, it can grow and develop into a
completely new individual.
Echinoderms exhibit this type of reproduction.
Parthenogenesis
This type of reproduction involves the development of an egg that has not been
fertilized into an individual.
Animals like most kinds of wasps, bees, and ants that have no sex chromosomes
reproduce by this process. Some reptiles and fish are also capable of reproducing
in this manner.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction can be very advantageous to certain animals. Animals that remain
in one particular place and are unable to look for mates would need to reproduce
asexually. Another advantage of asexual reproduction is that numerous offspring can be
produced without "costing" the parent a great amount of energy or time. Environments
that are stable and experience very little change are the best places for organisms that
reproduce asexually. A disadvantage of this type of reproduction is the lack of genetic
variation. All of the organisms are genetically identical and therefore share the same
weaknesses. If the stable environment changes, the consequences could be deadly to
all of the individuals.
Asexual Reproduction in Other Organisms
Animals are not the only organisms that reproduce asexually. Yeasts, plants and
bacteria are capable of asexual reproduction as well. Bacterial asexual reproduction
most commonly occurs by a kind of cell division called binary fission. Since the cells
produced through this type of reproduction are identical, they are all susceptible to the
same types of antibiotics.
Animal Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves one parent. As a result, the offspring tend to have the
same genotype and phenotype; they lack variation.
It is advantageous in a constant environment because a large number of offspring can
be produced in a short time.
Examples:
Flatworms can divide into 2 halves; each half grows into a separate organism.
Cnidarians undergo budding where a new individual grows from and then breaks off of
the parent individual.
Echinoderms can be cut to form new individuals.
Insects- parthenogenesis (unfertilized egg develops)
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two gametes.
Sperm and eggs are sometimes produced by the same individual and sometimes
produced by different individuals.
The sexes of vertebrates are separate but some vertebrates can change sex and others
are both male and female.
Variation
Sexual reproduction promotes variation because offspring inherit genes from two
different parents.
In addition, when an individual produces gametes, crossing-over and independent
assortment mix genes from that individuals parents. Gametes are haploid; they contain
some genes from the individuals mother and some from the father.
Variation is advantageous to species in fluctuating environments.
Reproductive cycles
Reproductive cycles in many vertebrates and invertebrates are related to changes in day
length.
Day length is a reliable indicator of season for timing circannual events such as
reproductive behavior and migration.
In many species, the pineal gland secretes melatonin in the dark. Increasing day length
(decreased melatonin levels) triggers reproductive behavior.
Fertilization
External fertilization
During external fertilization, many gametes are released into the water by each sex at
the same time and place.
This type of fertilization requires water because animal sperm must swim to the eggs.
Water also protects the gametes from drying out.
Species which have external fertilization are either aquatic or return to water for
reproduction.
Internal fertilization
Internal fertilization is practiced by species that lay shelled eggs or have a period of
internal embryonic development.
This type of fertilization enables animals to reproduce in a terrestrial environment
because it enables sperm to swim to the egg and it prevents gametes from drying out.
The male often has a copulatory organ (a penis) for transferring sperm.
Penis
The penis evolved independently in insects. It is found in all mammals.
Males of some aquatic animals (ex: sharks, skates, rays) have specialized pelvic fins
which allow the sperm to be passed to the female.
Some reptiles and birds have a penis but most have a single opening for the
reproductive, excretory, and digestive systems called a cloaca.
Male Reproductive System
Male Reproductive Structures
Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes but mature in the
epididymides (sing. epididymis). They are stored in the epididymides and vas
deferens.
The penis contains 3 masses of spongy erectile tissue with distensible blood spaces
that produce erection when blood flow in the veins is inhibited. The spongy erectile
tissues become engorged with blood. Stimulation is provided by the parasympathetic
nervous system.
An orgasm occurs as rhythmic muscular contractions compress the urethra and expel
the semen. This expulsion is termed ejaculation.
Fluids Added to Form Semen
The prostate gland produces a secretion that buffers the vaginal pH, which is normally
3.5 to 4.
The seminal vesicles add fructose to nourish the sperm and prostaglandins to promote
contractions in the female.
The bulbourethral gland (cowpers gland) produces mucus which lubricates the penis.
Testes- human
The testes are kept slightly cooler than body temperature because they are suspended
outside the body within the scrotum.
Each testis contains 250 to 300 lobules, and each of these contains one to three tightly
coiled seminiferous tubules. Sperm are produced within the seminiferous tubules.
The Leydig cells, located between the tubules, function to secrete testosterone.
Sertoli cells are located within the tubules. They support, nourish and regulate
(stimulate) cells that form sperm.
Testosterone
Testosterone is secreted by Leydig cells in the testes. These cells are located outside
the seminiferous tubules.
Testosterone is also necessary for the development and function of the male
reproductive tract.
The formation of sperm (called spermatogenesis) is stimulated by testosterone.
It promotes the development and maintenance of sexual behavior.
It stimulates the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as beard growth,
deepening of the voice, etc. and has growth-promoting effects.
Negative Feedback Regulation of Sex Hormones
Testosterone inhibits the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. Inhibin, secreted by Sertoli
cells also inhibits the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.
