Reproduction- Unit 5

Modes of reproduction seen among

animals
• Reproduction is a biological process through
which a new generation of individuals is
produced form the existing organisms.
• Two modes of reproduction are found among the
animals: Asexual reproduction and Sexual
reproduction.
• For the most animals, reproduction is mainly or
entirely sexual.
• Several forms of asexual reproduction are also
seen especially among invertebrates.
 Asexual reproduction
• Asexual reproduction is a mechanism through which
new individuals are generated from a single parent
without the fusion of egg and sperm.
• 1-Asexual reproduction relies entirely on mitotic cell
division.
• 2- Asexual reproduction allows the rapid multiplication
of individuals from single parents.
• 3- Hence no time or energy is spent in searching the
mates for the reproduction.
• 4-The produced off spring are genetically identical to
each other and to the single parent
 Methods of asexual reproduction
• Several methods of asexual reproduction are
found among invertebrates.
• They include 1. budding,2. fragmentation and
regeneration 3. and parthenogenesis.
• · Budding: Budding is a form of asexual
reproduction in which new individuals arise form
outgrowths of the animal.
• e.g. Hydra – A localized mass of mitotically
dividing cells, develops into a small Hydra, which
can eventually detach from the parent.
 · Fragmentation and regeneration
• This is a form of asexual reproduction which
involves breaking of the body or part of the body
into several pieces, followed by the growth of a
separate individual from each piece.
• Each fragment develops into a complete animal
by regrowth of lost body parts (regeneration).
• e.g. Certain annelid worms,
• numerous sponges,
• Cnidarians.
Fragmentation and regeneration
 Fragmentation and regeneration in
Annelids

• Enchytraeus japonensis reproduces both sexually and

asexually (by fragmentation).
 · Parthenogenesis
• This is an unusual form of asexual reproduction in which
an egg develops into a complete individual without being
fertilized.
• Among invertebrates, parthenogenesis occurs in some
animals such as bees, ants, aphids and wasps.
• The progeny can be haploid or diploid.
• In honey bees – males (drones) are fertile haploid adults
that develop through parthenogenesis, whereas females
including both sterile workers and the fertile queen, are
diploid adults that developed from fertilized eggs.
• Parthenogenesis has also been observed very rarely among
vertebrates (e.g. some lizards and fish).
 Sexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is a mechanism through which a new
individual is developed from a diploid zygote as a result of
the fusion of two haploid gametes (the sperm and the
egg) which are produced by two individuals (the male and
the female parents respectively).
• The female gamete, the egg, is large and non-motile, while
the male gamete, the sperm, is generally much smaller and
motile.
• The fusion of the female and male gametes forms a diploid
cell called the zygote. The animal that develops mitotically
from a zygote can in turn give rise to gametes by meiosis.
For the most animals, reproduction is mainly or entirely
sexual.
 · Gamete formation
• In animals, reproductive cells called gametes
(sperms and eggs) are the vehicles that
transmit genes from one generation to the
next.
• Each gamete is a haploid, unicellular
reproductive cell.
• Gametes in animals are formed by meiosis in
special organs called gonads.
 Bisexual organism and Unisexual
organism
• Bisexual organism and Unisexual organism:
• In a bisexual organism (Hermaphrodite), one
individual has both female and male reproductive
structures and therefore is able to produce both
male and female gametes by the same individual.
e.g. Earthworms.
• In unisexual organisms (dioecious), one
individual bears either male or female
reproductive structures. Therefore production of
male or female gametes occurs in separate
organisms. e.g. Humans
 · Fertilization
• Union of egg and sperm (gametes) culminating in fusion
of their nuclei is called fertilization.
• Fertilization can be either external or internal.
• External fertilization occurs in aquatic environments.
• In species with external fertilization, the female releases
eggs while the male releases sperm into the external
environment and fertilization occurs in the water.
• A moist habitat is almost always required for external
fertilization both to1- prevent the gametes from drying out
and to 2-allow the sperm to swim toward the eggs. e.g.
Many invertebrates, amphibians, most bony fish.
• In internal fertilization, sperms are deposited in or near the
female reproductive tract and fertilization occurs within the
female reproductive tract. e.g. insects, reptiles, mammals.
• Internal fertilization is an adaptation that enables sperm to
reach an egg even when the environment is dry.
• The male copulatory organ delivers sperm and the female
reproductive tract often has receptacles for storage and
delivery of sperm to mature eggs.
• Internal fertilization is typically associated with the
production of fewer gametes than external fertilization
but results in the survival of a higher fraction of zygotes.
• Internal fertilization often provides greater protection to
the embryos. Many animals show parental care.
• Internally fertilized eggs of birds and other reptiles possess
shells and internal membranes that protect against water
loss and physical damage.
• Some retain the embryo for a portion of any development
within the female reproductive tract.
• Significance of asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction

• Asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction are important

biological processes to ensure existence of a species.
• Asexual reproduction allows rapid multiplication of individuals
from single parents. Hence no time or energy is needed to be spent
in searching mates for the reproduction.
• In asexual reproduction, there is no or very little genetic variation
within a population as the produced off spring are genetically
identical to each other and to the single parent.
• Therefore, asexual reproduction would be more advantageous in
stable, favorable environments as it can propagate successful
genotypes specifically.
• However, any mutation in the parent cell, can cause harmful eff
ects on the survival ability of the off spring in changing
environments.
• If there is a harmful mutation in the organisms, environment
changes could be deadly to all the individuals in the population.
• Unlike asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction
results in the (1) production of a unique off spring by
combining genetic materials from two parents.
• (2)Meiotic recombination during sexual reproduction
helps produce varied genotypes.
• Unique gene combinations formed during sexual
reproduction would be advantageous as(3) this can
enhance reproductive success and survival of a species
in changing environments.
• (4)Beneficial gene combination arising through
recombination may speed up adaptation.
• During sexual reproduction, (5)shuffling of genes might
allow a population to clear sets of harmful genes more
readily which would enhance the survival of the
species.( As natural selection can act on the
population)
 Structure and Function of the Human
Male Reproductive System
• Main internal reproductive structures of a male
consist of
• 1. gonads (testes) which produce sperm and
reproductive hormones,
• 2.epididymis which store mature sperms,
• 3.accessory glands that secrete products required for
sperm movement and
• 4.ducts that transport the mature sperm and glandular
secretions.
• The external reproductive organs of a male are the
scrotum and penis.
• Scrotum: Scrotum is a pouch formed by a fold
of the body wall. Scrotum is divided into two
compartments. Each compartment contains
one testis, one epididymis and part of the
spermatic cords which suspend the testis in
the scrotum.
 Testes
• The testes are found within the scrotum which allows the
maintenance of the testis temperature 2ºC below the core body
temperature.
• Sperms are produced properly only when the testes are cooler
than the rest of the body.
• The testes develop in the abdominal cavity and descend into the
scrotum just before birth. The testes are cooled by their position
outside the abdominal cavity and the thin covering of the scrotum.
• Each testis contains many lobules. Within each lobule there are
highly coiled (convoluted) loops called seminiferous tubules.
• Sperms are produced within these tubules. Different cells that
undergo spermatogenesis are surrounded and connected to special
type of supporting cells (Sertoli cells) located in the seminiferous
tubule.
• Leydig cells secrete the hormone testosterone
and other androgens after puberty which
promote spermatogenesis in the tubules. The
seminiferous tubules combine to form a single
tubule (duct) at the upper part of the testes.
 Epididymis:
• Epididymis is the tightly packed mass that is formed
by the repeatedly folded long duct originated from
combined seminiferous tubules in the testis.
• From the seminiferous tubules, the sperms pass into
the epididymis.
• Since it is very long (about 6 m in length), it takes
about 3 weeks for sperm to travel the length of this
duct.
• During this time1- the sperms become matured and
motile.
• 2-Matured sperms are stored within the epididymis
until ejaculation.
• t
Vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra
and penis
• During ejaculation, sperm are propelled form each
epididymis through a muscular duct, the vas deferens.
• Each vas deferens (one from each epididymis) extends
around and behind the urinary bladder, where it joins a
duct from a seminal vesicle, forming a short ejaculatory
duct.
• The ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra which is the
passageway for both urinary excretion and delivery of
sperms in semen into the female reproductive tract.
• The urethra runs through the penis and opens to the
outside at the tip of the penis which contains erectile
tissues derived from modified veins and capillaries.
 Spermatogenesis
• Spermatogenesis is the process of male gamete
formation which includes formation of spermatocytes
from a spermatogonium, meiotic division of the
spermatocytes, and transformation of the four
resulting spermatids (from each spermatocyte) into
spermatozoa (sperm).
• Spermatogenesis occurs within the seminiferous
tubules of the testes. The time taken to produce
mature sperm cells from a specific spermatogonia in a
seminiferous tubule is about seven weeks from start to
finish.
• The formation and development of sperms is
continuous and inexhaustible in adult human males.
• Cell division and maturation during gametogenesis
occur throughout the seminiferous tubules.
• Hundreds of millions of sperm are produced each day
by spermatogenesis.
• In contrast to oogenesis (discussed later), in
spermatogenesis all four cells produced during meiosis
of each spermatocyte develop into mature gametes.
• Spermatogenesis starts at puberty and occurs
throughout life.
• Spermatogenesis produces mature sperms from
precursor cells in a continuous sequence.
 Main steps in Spermatogenesis
• The stem cells (2n) that give rise to sperms (Spermatogonial stem cells)
arise from mitotic division and differentiation of primodial germ cells in
the embryonic testes.
• These stem cells are situated near the edge of the seminiferous tubules.
• In mature testis, their progeny moves inward as they pass through the
different stages of maturation.
• · In mature testes, the stem cells divide mitotically to form Spermatogonia
(2n), which in turn generate primary spermatocytes (2n) by mitosis.
• · Each primary spermatocyte gives rise to four spermatids (n) through
meiosis (meiosis 1 and II), reducing the chromosome number from diploid
(2n=46 in humans) to haploid (n=23).
• · These spermatids differentiate into sperms with its characteristic head,
midpiece and tail. · The sperms are released into the fluid-fi lled lumen of
the tubule and they travel along the tubule into the epididymis, where
they become mature and motile.
• After puberty, Leydig cells present between
the seminiferous tubules secrete the hormone
testosterone which promotes
spermatogenesis.
• Different cells that undergo spermatogenesis
are surrounded and connected to special type
of supporting cells called Sertoli cells.
• These cells extend from the wall of the
seminiferous tubules to the lumen.
• These cells secrete inhibin hormone and
nourish and provide attachment for cells that
are in different stages of spermatogenesis.
• Each sperm is made up of three main parts, the head,
midpiece (body) and tail.
• Head of the sperm contains the haploid nucleus carrying
the paternal genetic material.
• A special vesicle called the acrosome is present at the
anterior end of the head. It contains hydrolytic enzymes
such as trypsin and hyaluronidase that help the sperm to
penetrate the outer layers of the ovum.
• Midpiece of the sperm contains many mitochondria that
provides ATP necessary for the movement of the tail.
• The tail of the sperm contains a long flagellum with typical
9+2 arrangement of microtubules.
• It is produced by the centriole found near the base of the
nucleus.
• The tail enables the sperm to swim along the female
reproductive tract towards an ovum.
 Semen
• The semen is the fluid that contains a mixture of sperms and the
secretions of three sets of accessory glands.
• The semen is discharged from the urethra during ejaculation.
• Usually a normal ejaculate contains about 2-5 mL of semen and the
sperm count in the semen may be in the range of 40-100 million/mL.
• Normally, the sperms comprise less than 10% of the final ejaculate.
• Main fraction of the semen is made up of secretions from seminal vesicles
and the prostate gland.
• The semen contains several components such as mucus, enzymes,
prostaglandins, ascorbic acid, citrate and fructose which promote the
survival of sperm.
• The semen provides a liquid medium for the sperm movement and also
helps to neutralize the acidity in the female reproductive tract.
• The life expectancy of a sperm is about 48-72 hours after ejaculation.
 Accessory glands associated with the
male reproductive system
• There are three sets of accessory glands that produce secretions
necessary for sperm survival and movement.
• They are seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral
glands.
• Seminal vesicles: They are a pair of two small pouches that
produce a thick, yellowish fluid that is expelled during ejaculation.
• Seminal fluid is alkaline to protect the sperm in the acidic
environment of the vagina.
• It contains mucus, fructose (that provides most of the sperm’s
energy), a coagulating enzyme (helps semen coagulates after
ejaculation), ascorbic acid ( Viatamin C)and local regulators called
prostaglandins.
• This fluid contributes to about 60% of the volume of semen. Each
seminal vesicle opens into a short duct that joins the corresponding
vas deference to form an ejaculatory duct.
 · Prostate gland
• · Prostate gland: This gland is found below the
urinary bladder. It secretes a thin, milky fluid
directly into the urethra through small ducts.
• This milky secretion contains
• coagulants,
• anticoagulant enzymes and
• citrate which is a sperm nutrient.
• This fluid contributes to about 30% of the volume
of semen.
 · Bulbourethral glands
· Bulbourethral glands: They are a pair of small
glands found along the urethra below the
prostate.
These glands secrete a clear alkaline mucus that
is able to neutralize any acidic urine remaining
in the urethra and
lubricates the lining of the urethra.
• · In males, in response to the release of GnRH from the
hypothalamus (just before puberty), results in the release
of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary.
• Rising levels of the FSH and LH hormones at puberty
promotes mature functioning of the male reproductive
organs.
• The hormones regulate the development, growth, pubertal
maturation and reproductive processes of the body. ·
• FSH and LH hormones direct spermatogenesis by acting on
different types of cells in the testis.
• · FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to nourish the developing
sperm. ( stimulate spermatogenesis)
• · LH causes Leydig cells to produce testosterone and other
androgens to promote spermatogenesis.
• · Two negative-feedback mechanisms control sex hormone
production in males
 negative-feedback circuits
• Testosterone inhibits GnRH, FSH and LH in
blood through its effect on the hypothalamus
and anterior pituitary.
• · Additionally inhibin produced by Sertoli
cells, acts on anterior pituitary gland to reduce
FSH secretion.
• · These negative-feedback circuits maintain
testosterone and other androgen levels in the
normal range.
 Structure and Function of the Human
Female Reproductive System
• Main internal structures of the female
reproductive system consists of two ovaries
(female gonads), two oviducts, uterus and
vagina.
• Ovaries: The female gonads are the two ovaries.
• They are found on either side of the uterus and are held in
place in the abdominal cavity by ligaments.
• In the ovary,1. female gametes(oocytes) are stored and
2.developed prior to 3. ovulation.
• Ovaries also 4. produce female sex hormones that are
needed for physiological changes during the reproductive
cycle.
• The ovaries have two tissue layers: outer the cortex and
inner the medulla.
• The outer layer of each ovary consists of connective tissues
covered by germinal epithelium.( simple cuboidal
epithelium)
• The outer layer contains ovarian follicles in various stages
of maturity.
• Each follicle consists of an oocyte, which is a partially
developed egg surrounded by support cells.
• Support cells protect and nourish the oocyte during its
development.
• The ovum is discharged from the ovary at secondary
oocyte stage of oogenesis with the first polar body.
• This secondary oocyte divides into the mature ovum
(egg) and a second polar body if a sperm penetrates
the secondary oocyte.
• Human ovum is a round cell with 23 maternal
chromosomes and relatively large cytoplasm and is
surrounded by numerous supporting cells.
• In addition, there is a clear layer( zona pellucida)
present between plasma membrane of the ovum and
the supporting cells.( polar body is located in the
perivitelline space)
Section of an ovary showing the stages
of development of one ovarian follicle
 Oviducts
• Oviducts:
• The oviduct or the fallopian tube extends from the
uterus toward a funnel like opening at each ovary.
• The dimensions of this tube vary along its length (near
the uterus is narrow as a human hair).
• After ovulation, cilia on the inner epithelial lining of the
oviduct help collect the egg by drawing fluid from the
body cavity into the oviduct.
• Then with the help of wave like contractions of the
oviduct the cilia convey the egg ( embryo) down the
oviduct to the uterus.
 Uterus
• Uterus:
• The uterus or the womb is a thick, pear shaped
chamber.
• Its walls are muscular, which allows it to expand
during pregnancy to accommodate the fetus and
• its inner lining (endometrium) is highly
vascularized.
• The distal end of the uterus narrows to form a
neck, called the cervix that opens into the vagina
 Vagina
• Vagina:
• This is a muscular but elastic chamber with a
stratified epithelium.
• The vagina 1- connects external and internal
organs of reproduction.
• It is the 2-site where sperms are deposited
and also3- serves as the birth canal.
 Oogenesis
• In the human female, the development of mature
oocytes takes a long time.
• Immature eggs are formed in the ovary of a
developing female embryo. But these eggs complete
their development many years or even decades later.
• In oogenesis, cytokinesis during meiosis is unequal,
with almost all the cytoplasm segregated to a single
daughter cell.
• This large cell develops to become the egg.
• The other products of meiosis, which are smaller cells
are known as polar bodies. These polar bodies
eventually degenerate.
• . Unlike spermatogenesis, the mitotic divisions
that occur during oogenesis in human females
are thought to be complete before birth and
the production of mature gametes ceases at
about the age 50 years.
• Unlike in spermatogenesis, during oogenesis
there are also long interruptions.
 Main steps in oogenesis
• Oogenesis begins in the female embryo with the mitotic division of
primordial germ cells that give rise to oogonia.
• · Then oogonia divide by mitosis to form cells that begin meiosis, but
stops at prophase I before birth.
• · Each of these developmentally arrested cell is called a primary oocyte.
• Each primary oocyte is found within a small follicle, a cavity lined with
protective cells.
• At birth, the ovaries together contain about 1-2 million primary oocytes.
Out of these about 500 fully mature between the puberty and the
menopause.
• · Beginning at puberty, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) periodically
stimulates a small group of follicles to resume growth and development.
Out of these only one follicle fully matures each month.
• During this time the primary oocyte within the follicle completes meiosis I
and produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body.
• Then the meiosis II starts, but stops at the metaphase.
• The secondary oocyte arrested in meiosis II is
released at ovulation (with the first polar body),
when its follicle breaks open.
• · If a sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte,
meiosis II completes and the secondary oocyte
divides into the mature ovum and a second polar
body.
• Both meiotic divisions involve unequal
cytokinesis, with the smaller cells becoming polar
bodies which will degenerate eventually.
• If a sperm penetrates, there is a single mature
egg (ovum) containing a sperm head at the end
of oogenesis. . The fusion of the haploid nuclei of
the sperm and the ovum is called fertilization.
• · The ruptured follicle left behind after
ovulation develops into the corpus luteum.
• Corpus luteum secretes estradiol and
progesterone hormones which help to
maintain the uterine lining during pregnancy.
• · If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
degenerates and leaves a small ,permanent
scar of fibrous tissue called corpus albicans on
the ovary surface.
• · A new follicle matures during the next cycle.
 Hormonal control of the human
female reproductive cycles
• Although males produce sperms continuously, females produce ova
in cycles.
• There are two linked reproductive cycles in a human female during
their reproductive years;
• the ovarian cycle and
• the uterine cycle (or the menstrual cycle).
• The uterine cycle consists of changes that occur about once a
month in the uterus and these cyclic changes in the uterus are
controlled by the ovarian cycle, which is cyclic events that occur in
the ovaries.
• Both of these cycles are regulated by hormonal activities which link
the two cycles, synchronizing ovarian follicle growth and ovulation
with the establishment of a uterine lining which supports the
development of embryo.
 Ovarian cycle
• · Ovarian cycle comprises follicular phase( 14 days) and luteal
phase.(14 days)
• · The period during which the follicle grows and the oocyte
matures is referred to as the follicular phase.
• At the beginning of follicular phase, GnRH from the hypothalamus
simulates the anterior pituitary to secrete small amounts of FSH
and LH.
• · FSH stimulates follicle growth, aided by LH.
• · Cells of the growing follicle start to make estradiol hormone.
• Therefore the estradiol level rises slowly during the follicular phase.
• The low levels of estradiol inhibit the secretion of gonadotropin
hormones from the anterior pituitary (negative feedback) so that
LH and FSH are kept at relatively low levels in the follicular phase.
·
• · When estradiol secretion by the growing follicle starts to
increase sharply, high levels of estradiol stimulate the
hypothalamus to increase GnRH secretion which in turn
stimulates the anterior pituitary to sharply rise the FSH and
LH secretion especially producing a LH surge (through
positive feedback mechanism).
• · By this time the maturing follicle, containing a fluid-filled
cavity has enlarged, forming a bulge at the surface of the
ovary.(Graffian follicle)
• About a day after the LH surge, the follicular phase ends at
ovulation.
• In response to both FSH and the peak in LH level, the
follicle and adjacent wall of the ovary rupture, releasing the
secondary oocyte which is called ovulation.(ending the
follicular phase)
• · The luteal phase of the ovarian cycle takes place after
ovulation. In the luteal phase, LH stimulates the follicular
tissue within the ovary to transform into a glandular
structure called the corpus luteum
• · The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estradiol,
which then exert negative-feedback on the hypothalamus
and pituitary.
• This feedback reduces LH and FSH secretion to very low
levels and thereby prevents the maturation of another egg
in the ovary.
• · If there is no pregnancy, the low gonadotropin levels at
the end of luteal phase promotes disintegration of the
corpus luteum.
• · Disintegration of corpus luteum leads to the sharp decline
in hormones.(progesterone and estradiol)
• As a result the negative-feedback of estradiol and
progesterone on the hypothalamus and pituitary are
removed.
• This enables the pituitary to produce FSH to stimulate the
growth of a new follicles thereby starting the next ovarian
cycle.
 2. Uterine (menstrual) cycle
• Uterine cycle consists of proliferative phase, secretory phase and
menstrual flow phase.
• · Proliferative phase: Before ovulation, steroid hormones of the
ovary stimulate the uterus to prepare for support of an embryo.
• Growing follicles secrete estradiol that stimulates the
endometrium to thicken. This is referred to as the proliferative
phase in the uterine cycle.
• Therefore the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle coordinates with
the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle.
• · The secretory phase starts after ovulation. After ovulation,
estradiol and progesterone that are secreted from the corpus
luteum stimulate the maintenance and further development of the
lining of the uterus by enlarging the arteries and growth of the
endometrial glands.
• These glands secrete nutrient fluid that can sustain an early
embryo if fertilization occurs.
• Hence, the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle is coordinated
with the secretory phase of the uterine cycle.
• · Menstrual flow phase:
• If implantation of an embryo does not occur, the corpus
luteum disintegrates which results in the drop in ovarian
hormones.
• This brings about the end of the secretory phase.
• As a result, arteries constrict and thereby the uterine lining
disintegrates and causes the shedding of endometrial
tissues and fluid. This is the menstrual flow phase of the
uterine cycle.
• The cyclic shedding of the blood-rich endometrium from
the uterus, a process that occurs in a flow and which lasts
for a few days through the cervix and vagina is called
menstruation.
• Menopause- This is the cessation of ovulation
and menstruation in a woman. Usually
menopause takes place between the ages of
45 and 55 years. During this time the ovarian
supply of oocytes runs out and the estrogen
production by the ovary decreases.
• Ovaries become less responsive to the
hormones FSH and LH produced by the
anterior pituitary.
 Human Development
• Growth of a new human being starts when an
ovum is fertilized by a sperm usually in the
oviduct.
• During the development of the individual within
the mother’s uterus, a sequence of events occurs
from fertilization to the birth which normally
ends in 38 weeks or roughly 9 months.
• The first 8 weeks of human development is called
the embryonic period and thereafter the
developing individual is called a fetus.
• Fertilization/conception and the formation of a human
zygote
• During ovulation a secondary oocyte arrested at
metaphase II enters the oviduct. During fertilization a
sperm enters the secondary oocyte penetrating the
epithelial cells surrounding the oocyte, the
glycoprotein(zona pellucida)layer present between the
oocyte’s plasma membrane and the surrounding cells.
• Once the sperm enters the secondary oocyte, meiosis II of
the oocyte is completed producing the mature ovum.
• Subsequently, the two haploid pronuclei of the mature
ovum and the sperm fuse to produce a diploid, single cell
referred to as the zygote.
• The fusion of the haploid nuclei of the sperm and the ovum
is called fertilization. Fertilization takes place in the upper
reaches of the oviduct within 12 to 24 hours after
ovulation.
• Cleavage of the zygote, blastocyst formation
and implantation
• About 24 hours after fertilization, a series of
rapid mitotic cell divisions called ‘cleavage’
take place in the zygote.
• Cleavage of zygote begins in the oviduct as it
moves forward towards the uterus by ciliary
and peristaltic movements.
• Cleavage continues forming a solid ball of
cells (morula) by the time the embryo reaches
the uterus (about 3-4 days after fertilization)
• Morula floats within the uterine cavity and gets
nutrition by endometrial secretions.
• About five days after fertilization, a large fluid filled
cavity is formed surrounding the ball of cells.
• With the formation of the cavity, this developing stage
is referred to as the blastocyst.
• Further rearrangements of the cells in the blastocyst
results in two distinct structures: the inner cell mass
and the trophoblast.
• Inner cell mass is located internally and eventually
develops into the embryo and the membranes
enclosing the embryo are called the amniotic sac.
• The trophoblast which is the outer layer of cells will
ultimately develops into the fetal portion of the
placenta.
• Around 7 days after fertilization, the blastocyst attaches to
the endometrium of the mother’s uterus.
• This is called implantation. As the blastocyst implants, the
inner cell mass orients towards the endometrium.
• The trophoblast grows outward and invades the
endometrium.
• This is initiated by the enzyme secreted by the trophoblast
to breakdown the uterine lining.
• Then the trophoblast extends finger like projections into
the endometrium.
• Trophoblast begins to secrete human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) hormone which has the action similar
to LH.
• The hormone hCG rescues the corpus luteum from
degeneration and sustains its secretion of progesterone
and estrogen which maintain the uterine lining preventing
menstruation
• After implantation, three germ layers are
formed in the developing embryo at the end
of the gastrulation stage.
• Extra-embryonic membranes begin to appear
which surround the embryo. The placenta is
formed by the cells of trophoblast and the
adjacent endometrial tissues.
 Embryonic membranes / fetal
membranes
• Four new extra embryonic membranes appear after
implantation.
• They are chorion, amnion, yolk sac and allantois.
• They provide a life support system for further
embryonic/ fetal development.
• 1-Chorion becomes the main embryonic portion of
the placenta which is the structure for exchange of
materials between the fetus and mother.
• 2-It also protects the embryo/fetus from immune
responses of the mother.
• 3- Chorion produces hCG, an important hormone of
pregnancy.
• 2-Amnion is a 1.protective membrane surrounding
the embryo/fetus creating a fluid filled cavity which
• 2.serves as a shock absorber and helps prevent
desiccation.
• 3-Yolk sac
• 1- contributes to the cells that will become blood cells
until the fetal liver takes over.
• It also is the 2-source of primordial germ cells that
migrate to the developing gonads.
• 4-Allantois is a small outer-pouching of the yolk sac
that
• 1-serves as an early site for blood formation and is 2-
associated with the development of the urinary
bladder.
• Placenta and umbilical cord
• During the first 2-4 weeks of embryonic development, the
embryo obtains nourishment directly from the
endometrium.
• Eventually, the embryonic trophoblast and the mother’s
endometrium intermingles and form the placenta.
• The placenta is a disc shaped organ formed by two parts:
embryonic/fetal portion formed by chorionic villi of the
chorion and maternal portion formed by the
endometrium.( which serves to support the development
of embryo/ fetus from the 4th week to birth)
• The placenta contains both embryonic/ fetal and maternal
blood vessels.
• However maternal and fetal blood vessels do not join and
the blood they carry do not normally mix.
.
• 1-The placenta mediates the exchange of
material (nutrients, respiratory gases, metabolic
wastes) between the embryonic/fetal and the
mother’s circulatory systems.
• . The placenta supplies oxygen and nutrients to
the fetus from the maternal blood stream and
excrete waste products from the fetus to the
maternal blood stream.
• 2-The placenta also helps to provide immune
protection to the developing embryo/fetus.
• 3-The placenta produces hormones (e.g. hCG,
progesterone etc.) needed to sustain the
pregnancy.
• Umbilical cord is a flexible cord-like structure
containing blood vessels and attaches
embryo/fetus to the placenta during gestation.
• Oxygen poor blood from the embryo/fetus
travels to the placenta through the two arteries
of the umbilical cord and passes through
fingerlike projections (chorionic villi) of the
placenta where oxygen and nutrients are
acquired.
• Fetal blood (oxygen rich blood) leaves the
placenta through the umbilical vein leading back
to the embryo/fetus.
 Pregnancy and its duration
• Pregnancy or gestation is the condition of
carrying one or more developing off spring
inside the uterus of a female.
• Human pregnancy period is usually 38 weeks
from fertilization to birth or roughly 9 months (or
40 weeks from the last menstruation to birth).
• The nine months of pregnancy are divided into
three trimesters of about three months each
• During the first trimester, the implanted embryo secretes
hormones to regulate the mother’s reproductive system
and to indicate its presence.
• The hCG hormone secreted by the embryo, maintains the
corpus luteum in the ovary to secrete progesterone and
estrogen. Some amount of this hCG passes from the
maternal blood to the urine.1) The presence of hCG in
pregnant mother’s blood and urine can be easily detected
and therefore is used as an early pregnancy detection test.
• High levels of progesterone brings about rapid changes in
the mother.
• Both2) ovulation and menstrual cycles stop, the maternal
side of the placenta grows, and the3) breasts and the
uterus get larger.
• Mucus in 4)the cervix of the mother forms a plug which
prevents the fetus from infections. Most mothers
5)experience nausea (morning sickness) during the first
trimester.
• By the second trimester, the level of hCG
declines and as a result the corpus luteum
deteriorates.
• But the placenta takes over the production of
progesterone and estrogens which helps to
maintain the pregnancy.
• Mother can 6) feel fetal movements. As the
fetus grows, mother’s abdominal organs
become compressed and displaced.
• In the third trimester of pregnancy this may
lead to7) digestive blockage and8) frequent
urination.
 Major fetal changes in each trimester
• First trimester -The first trimester is the most critical
stage of development during which the rudiments of all
major organ systems appear.
• This is the main period of organogenesis (the
development of the body organs).
• The heart begins to beat by the 4th week (can be
detected at 8-10 weeks).
• By the 8th week, embryo is said to be the fetus as all
the parts of an adult are present in rudimentary form.
• At the end of the 1st trimester, the fetus is well diff
erentiated and about 5 -7 cm long.
 Second trimester
• By the end of second trimester, the fetus
assumes distinctively human features.
• Organ systems are completely developed in
this stage.
• During the second trimester, the fetus grows
to about 30 cm in length and is very active so
that the mother may feel the fetal movements
 Third trimester
• The third trimester represents a period of
rapid fetal growth.
• During the early stage of this period, most of
the organ systems become fully functional.
• During the third trimester, the fetus grows to
about 50 cm in length and weighs about 3-4
kg.
• Fetal activity decrease as it fills the space
within the uterus.
 Maternal immune tolerances of the
embryo and fetus
• Maternal immune tolerances of the embryo and
fetus –
• During pregnancy the overall regulation of the
mother’s immune system changes. These
changes allow the mother to keep the embryo in
her uterus without rejecting as a foreign body
even though half the embryo’s genes are
inherited from the father and many chemical
markers on the surface of the embryo are foreign
to the mother.
 Process of parturition
• Child birth begins with the labor.
• The labor is a series of strong, rhythmic uterine
contractions that push the fetus and placenta out of
the body.
• When labor begins, local regulators (prostaglandins)
and hormones (mainly estradiol and oxytocin) induce
and regulate further contractions of the uterus.
• This is a positive feedback mechanism as uterine
contractions stimulate secretion of oxytocin which
stimulates further contractions of the uterus.
 Three stages of labor
• The labor can be divided into three stages.
• 1- The first stage is the thinning and opening up
(dilation) of the cervix.
• 2- The second stage is the delivery of the baby.
• In this stage, continuous and strong contractions
force the fetus out of the uterus and expel
through the vagina.
• 3rd stage- Delivery of the placenta is the final
stage of labor.
• Lactation
• The lactation which is unique to mammals begins as post natal
care.
• Lactation is the secretion and ejection of mother’s milk from the
mammary glands.
• Lactation is subjected to nervous and hormonal regulation.
• The main hormone in promoting milk synthesis and secretion is
prolactin.
• In response to suckling by the new born baby (which initiates
nerve impulses from touch receptors in the nipples) and decrease
in estradiol and progesterone levels in the mother’s blood after
birth, 1-the hypothalamus send impulses to the anterior pituitary
to secrete prolactin hormone which stimulates the mammary
glands to produce milk.
• 2-Suckling also stimulates the secretion of oxytocin hormone from
the posterior pituitary gland and triggers the release (ejection) of
milk from the mammary glands.
• This is a positive feedback mechanism as milk availability
encourages continuous suckling, so touch sensation on the nipple
and oxytocin release continue further ejecting milk from the
mammary glands.
• Composition of human milk and significance
of breast feeding
• During the first few days after birth, the
mammary glands secrete a fluid called
‘colostrum’ until appearance of true milk.
• Human milk is a sterile solution that contain
nutrients such as lactose, fatty acids, amino
acids, minerals, vitamins, and water that are
ideal for baby’s digestion, brain development
and growth.
• Human milk includes proteins such as casein,
lactalbumin and immunoglobulins.
• 1-Colostrum and true milk provide nutrients for the baby
and contain important antibodies that protect the infant.
• 2-Several types of white blood cells are also present in the
breast milk which help the baby to resist microbial
infections.
• 3- Compared to the true milk, colostrum contains less
nutrients (less lactose and no fat) but they are adequate for
the early nutritional needs.
• 4- Breast feeding supports optimal infant growth,
• 5-enhances intellectual development and fosters mother-
infant relations by establishing early and prolonged contact
between them.
• 6- Compared to cow’s milk, the fat, iron and the proteins in
the breast milk are more readily metabolized.
• 7-Lower sodium content of breast milk is more suited to
the baby’s needs.
• 8-The baby is less likely to have allergic reactions to
mother’s milk than the milk from another source.
 Birth control methods
• The deliberate prevention of pregnancy is called
contraception.
• This can be achieved in several ways.
• 1-Some contraceptive methods prevent gamete
development or releasing gametes.
• 2-Some contraceptive methods prevent fertilization of
gametes.
• 3-Some methods are available to prevent implantation
of an embryo.
• Unwanted pregnancies are avoided by birth control
methods.
• Common temporary birth control methods:
• 1 a · Oral contraceptives for females: Most oral contraceptives
contain high concentration of synthetic estrogen and
progesterone. High levels of these hormone inhibit GnRH release
from hypothalamus and FSH and LH secretions from anterior
pituitary through negative feedback. Prevention of LH release,
blocks ovulation. Inhibition of FSH secretion prevents follicle
maturation.
• B. Some oral contraceptives contain only high levels of synthetic
progesterone (progestin) which thickens cervical mucus so that it
blocks entering sperms to the uterus.
• If fertilization occurs it can interfere with implantation as well.
• 2· Condoms for males: Barrier devices which prevent sperm entry ·
• 3. IUD (loop ) for females: A device placed in the uterus which
interferes with fertilization and prevents implantation of a fertilized
ovum ·
• 4.Depo-Provera injection for females: Periodic injection of a
synthetic progesterone which thicken cervical mucus and prevents
sperm entry. If fertilization occurs it prevents implantation by
making the endometrium thin.
• Surgical Sterilization (preventive methods of
gamete release) · Vasectomy for males-
Prevents release of sperms · Tubal ligation for
females- Prevents ovum from entering uterus
• What is tubal ligation? Permanent
contraception is called sterilisation. A tubal
ligation is a procedure to cut or clip a woman's
fallopian tubes. A tubal ligation (also known as
'having your tubes tied') is a procedure to
close both fallopian tubes which means that
sperm can’t get to an egg to fertilise it.
• Abortion · Abortion is the premature
termination of a pregnancy in progress.
• · Miscarriage: Spontaneous abortion which
occurs naturally. ·
• Induced abortion is intentionally performed
(surgical or nonsurgical).
• Certain drugs can induce abortion non-
surgically within the first 7 weeks after
conception. They block progesterone
receptors in the uterus thereby preventing
progesterone from maintaining the
pregnancy
 Sexually transmitted infections
Infection pathogen Main mode of Main symptoms
transmission
Gonorrhea Neisseria 1-sexual contact Males- burning
gonorrhoeae- 2- mother to child at feeling/discomfort
bacterium birth when passing
urine,yellow
discharge with pus
from urino-genitary
tract, accompanied
by fever and
headache.

Syphilis Treponema pallidum- 1-sexual contact Sores or painless

bacterium 2- mother to child at ulcers on any part of
birth the body(vagina,lips,
fingers, nipples)
fever,skin rashes
 Gonorrhoea
• symptoms in women includes:
• Fever
• Discharge from the vagina
• Pain or burning sensation while urinating
• Tendency to urinate frequently
• Heavier periods or spotting
• Sore throat
• Pain during sexual intercourse
• Sharp pain in the lower abdomen
 Detecting disorders during pregnancy
· Many development problems and genetic disorders can be
diagnosed during the gestation period.
·1- Ultrasound images can be used to analyze the size and
condition of the fetus.
·2- Amniocentesis and chorionic villi sampling –a needle is
used to obtain fetal cells from amniotic fluid or tissue
surrounding the embryo. Genetic analysis can be done with
these samples.
· 3-Newest method is to use a pregnant mother’s blood to
analyze the genome of the fetus as the mother’s blood
contains fetal DNA
· But all detectable disorders are untreatable when the
embryo is in the uterus and many cannot be corrected even
after birth. However, parents can take informed decisions with
the help of these tests.
 Infertility
• Infertility is the inability to conceive off spring.
• Both men and women can have reproductive defects leading to
infertility.
• The number of couples facing this problem appears to be increasing
in the modern society.
• Certain forms of infertility are treatable.
Modern reproductive technology for resolving infertility problems
• · Some infertility problems are resolved by recent scientific and
technological advances.
• This includes
• 1-hormone therapy,
• 2-surgery and
• 3- assisted reproductive technology.
• · Hormone therapy– Sometimes, hormone therapy can increase
sperm production in the infertile male or egg production in the
infertile female.
• · Surgery: The ducts in the reproductive system that are formed
improperly or have become blocked can be corrected surgically to
resolve infertility.
• · Assisted reproductive technology
• 1- In vitro fertilization (IVF): In vitro fertilization is a series of
procedures used to treat infertility problems and assist with the
conception of a child.
• The process involves removal of oocyte(s) from a female ovary and
obtaining sperms from a male and combining the oocyte and the
sperms to achieve the fertilization under laboratory conditions.
• The fertilized eggs are incubated until they reach at least 8 cells
and then these embryos are transferred to the woman’s uterus for
implantation and to continue its development.
• Conventional IVF needs between 50 and 100 thousands of sperm
from the male per one oocyte in order to achieve the fertilization.
This is due to the fact that in IVF, acrosome reaction has to take
place and thousands of sperm cells have to be involved.
Intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection
Intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI
• This is also a type of in vitro fertilization method which
is used to address male infertility.
• If mature sperm are defective or low in number, a
whole sperm or a spermatid nucleus is injected directly
into the cytoplasm of an oocyte that has been removed
from the women’s ovary.
• For insemination, ICSI needs only one sperm per
oocyte. Unlike in conventional IVF, the sperm which
will be inserted into a particular oocyte is already
selected in ICSI.
• The fertilized egg can then be returned to the woman's
uterus for implantation.
• Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI /ˈɪksi/ IK-see) is an in vitro
fertilization (IVF) procedure in which a single sperm cell is injected
directly into the cytoplasm of an egg. This technique is used in
order to prepare the gametes for the obtention of embryos that
may be transferred to a maternal uterus. With this method,
the acrosome reaction is skipped.
• There are several differences within classic IVF and ICSI. However,
the steps to be followed before and after insemination are the
same. In terms of insemination, ICSI needs one only sperm cell
per oocyte, meanwhile IVF needs 50,000 - 100,000. This is because
the acrosome reaction has to take place and thousands of sperm
cells have to be involved in IVF. Once fertilized, the egg is
transformed into a proembryo and it has to be transferred to the
uterus to continue its development.
• The first human pregnancy generated by ICSI was carried out in
1991 by Gianpiero Palermo and his team.
 State true or false
• Primordial germ cells in females undergo division and differentiation after birth.
• The first meiotic division completes just prior to birth in females.
• The females contain large number of oogonial stem cells in the ovary at puberty.
• Only one ovarian follicle starts the developmental process in each reproductive
cycle of females.
• The mature ovum is produced in the oviduct if the secondary oocyte is penetrated
by a sperm.
• A single sperm is sufficient for acrosome reaction.
• The fertilized ovum undergoes cleavage about one day after fertilization.
• The stage of embryo that reaches the uterus is called morula.
• The morula contains a fluid filled cavity enclosed by embryonic cells.
• The embryo starts laying down of germ layers before implantation.
• The blastocyst stage has an outer cell layer called trophoblast which is
instrumental in the implantation process.
• All embryonic cells are produced from the inner cell mass and all extra embryonic
membranes produced from the trophoblast.
• The hormone produced during the process of implantation is hCG.
 True/false
• The role of hCG is to secure the corpus luteum in order
to have a continuos supply of progesterone and
estradiol to sustain pregnancy until placenta takes over
the endocrine function.
• The trophoblast becomes the chorion, which forms the
major part of placenta.
• The amnion secretes the fluid to enclose the embryo
and fetus to function in shock absorption and maintain
uniform pressure around the embryo/ fetus.
• In humans the yolk sac has no obvious function.
• Allantois protects the embryo/fetus from immune
response of the mother.
 True/ false
• Umbilical cord contains two umbilical veins and
one umbilical artery.
• The placenta is formed from the tissues of two
organisms which are the chorion of fetus and
endometrium of the mother.
• The fetal blood capillaries are within the
chorionic villi and receive nutrients, oxygen and
hormones from the mother and deliver to the
fetus through umbilical artery.
• 2019-3 part c