4.

1 Sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction

Reproduction
The process of generating new individuals or
offspring by living organisms

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

Involves the integration of male It does not involve the process
gametes and female gametes of fertilisation and involves
(fertilisation) to produce a new only one parent to produce the
generation that differs from its same new generation as its
parent. parent.

Internal External Binary Spore

fertilisation fertilisation fission formation Budding

Regeneration
Vegetative
propagation
Sexual reproduction
Internal fertilisation External fertilisation
The male releases the gametes into Parent male and female parent release the
the parent body of female. gametes out of their respective bodies.

Sperm

Gametes release from bodies

Ovum
Male gamete and female gametes Male gametes and female gamete are
are fertilised within the body of the fertilised outside the female parent body.
mother. Zygote is formed in the This fertilisation usually occurs in water.
mother body.

External fertilisation

Internal fertilisation
The number of female gametes The number of female gametes produced
produced is small because the is abundant because the opportunity to
opportunity to fertilise is high. fertilise is small.

Zygot
Happens in humans, mammals, External fertilisation involves fish, frogs and
reptiles, birds and insects. frogs.

Reptiles
Fish
Asexual reproduction

1. Asexual reproduction is the formation of new organisms from an

organism or parent without involving gametes.
2. Types of asexual reproduction are shown in the diagram below.

Binary
fission
Budding

Asexual
reproduction
Spore
formation

Vegetative
propagation

 Binary fission

1. In the binary fission, a parent cell multiplies asexually by

dividing itself into two daughter cells.
2. Each daughter cell is similar to a parent cell. Then, the cells
develop, mature and further divide itself again.
3. Examples of organisms that use binary fission are amoeba,
bacteria and paramecium.

● Amoeba ● Bacteria

●Paramecium

● Budding

1. A parent organism that reproduces by reproduction detached

the buds that grow on the parent's body.
2. The shoots on the body of the developing organism grow,
mature and eventually detached from the body of the main
organism which then develop into a new organism.
3. Examples of budding reproductive organisms are Hydra and
yeast:
● Spores formation

1. Organisms that reproduce asexually through the formation of

spores release mature spores into the environment.
2. Spores are produced in sporangium. When the sporangium
becomes mature, it breaks and releases mature spores.
3. The spores will germinate and grow into new organisms when
they found appropriate environment.

4. Examples of organisms that breed in this way are:

● fungi ● mushrooms

● ferns ● moss
● Vegetative propagation

1. In vegetative propagation, mains plants breed asexually

through its vegetative parts such as roots, stems and leaves.
2. These parent plant parts can grow into new plant.
3. New plant grows faster through vegetative breeding than
through seeds. The characteristics of the parent plant will be
transferred to the new tree.

New plant
Shoots

Buds

Bryophyllum plant: Onions: breeding

breed through leaf through bulbs

Corm
Roots

Carrot: breed through Yam: breed

long roots. through corm
(stem)

Rhizome
Runner

Strawberry: breed
Ginger: breed
through runner
through rhizome
(stem)
 Tuber

Buds Potato: breed

grafting through the tuber
(stem)

● Regeneration
1. By regeneration, the body parts of an organism split then
grow and become a new organism.
2. For example, flatworms (planaria) and Spirogyra can multiply
asexually when the body is cut into several parts.
3. Each piece will regenerate to produce new organisms as
shown below.

 Tissue culture

1. In this technique, a small tissue of plants from the parent plant

(known as explants) is placed in a suitable growth medium such
as agar.
2. The agar contains nutrients and hormones.
3. This growth medium allows explants to grow, resulting in
shoots and roots growing.
4. The next development occurs and finally the new plant is
produced.
5. Tissue culture techniques are widely used today to produce
large number of herbs or tissues in shorter time.

1. A plant with the

desired
characteristics is
selected.

2. The trunk part is cut

into several pieces,
each with a bud.

3. Each explant is
sterilized in a
bleach solution.

4. Under sterile
conditions, the
explants are
transferred into
gelatine containing
nutrients and
hormones.

5. Explants
expand. Shoots
and roots grow.

6. After 3-4 weeks, the

saplings are transplant
into pots containing
sterilized compost.
Importance of Reproduction
1. Each organism has a certain lifespan and will die due to the body's
degeneration.
2. To ensure the continuity of the species of an organism, every
organism must be able to produce new individual to replace the dead.
3. Organisms that fail to produce new individuals will cause extinction.
4. The extinction of a species will impact the ecosystem's balance.

Appreciate the Ability to Reproduce for Continuation of Life as a

Gift from God

1. Every child conceived is God's gift to us to continue life.

2. Persecution and abandonment of a baby is a very cruel act and must
be avoided.

4.2 Human reproductive system

Male reproductive system

1. The male reproductive system consists of certain organs and

structures.
2. Each organ and structure in the male reproductive system has its
own function.

7
No. Structure Function
1 Sperm duct Conduct the sperm from the testis to the urethra.
2 Seminal Produces fluids that provide nutrients for sperm to
vesicle ensure sperm is alive.
3 Prostate Generates a nutritious fluid as a medium for sperm
gland swimming in it.
4 Penis Transfer the sperm from the male body into the
female vagina during intercourse.
5 Urethra Conduct urine or sperm out of the body.
6 Testis Produces sperm (male gametes) and male sex
hormones.
7 Scrotum Protect and hold the testicles off the body and
maintain optimum temperature for the testis.

3. Sex glands for men comprise seminal vesicle and prostate glands.
4. The sperm produced in the testis is stored temporarily in these
glands.
5. Fluids produced in the seminal vesicle along with the sperm from
the cement fluid.
6. The testicles start producing sperm and sex hormones when man
reach puberty.

Female reproductive system

1. The female reproductive system produces female gamete, the

ovum and provides a place for growth of the foetus.
2. The diagram and table below show the female reproductive
system and the function of each structure and organ in the female
reproductive system.

5
No. Structure Function
1 Fallopian tube It is a tube that collects the ovum and transports
(or oviduct) the ovum to the uterus. Fertilisation occurs in the
Fallopian tube.
2 Ovary Produce ovum and female sex hormone.
3 Uterus It is a muscular structure shaped like pears, where
the foetus develops during the duration of the
pregnancy.
4 Cervix It is a muscular ring at the bottom of the uterus that
leads to the vagina. The cervix produces mucus to
facilitate sperm swimming into the uterus.
5 Vagina It is a muscular tube that opens out of the female
body. The vagina is a place where sperm is
transplanted into semen and becomes a duct when
the baby is born.

3. The process of producing ovum begins in the ovary since the when
a girl reaches puberty.
4. The cervix and vagina of pregnant women will expand during
childbirth.

Comparison between Male Gamete and Female Gamete

1. There are two types of sex cells or gametes, i.e.

a. male gametes and
b. female gametes.
2. Male gametes are also known as sperm, while female gametes are
also known as ovum.
3. The diagram below shows the structure of the sperm and ovum.
4. Cytoplasm

tail Middle Nucleus

part Head

Neck Nucleus
Cell membrane
Length 0.01 – 0.05 mm
(a) Sperm Diametre 0.05 mm
(b) Ovum
 5. Both gametes are involved in human reproduction.
6. The genetic material that carries the genetic information of an
individual is contained in the sperm and ovum nucleus.
7. Sperm has tail that moves into the fallopian tube.
8. The map below shows a comparison between sperm and ovum.

Produced Produced
in the inside
It is the testes the ovary It is the
smallest Reproductive largest cell in
cell in the cell the female
male body
body
SPERM
OVUM
Cannot
Can move by
move itself
by itself Generated Carry
in huge genetic Only one is
amount for information released for
fertilisation
fertilisation

Puberty

1. Puberty is the stage when human becomes sexually mature.

2. When a person reaches puberty, he or she will experience
changes in the physical, physiology (body function) and emotion.
3. Male sex hormones produced during puberty control the sexual
characteristics of men. Among the secondary sexual
characteristics of man is the voice become rough, moustache and
beards begin to grow, body become muscular and hair grow in the
armpits and the pubic area.
4. Female sex hormones produced during puberty work to control the
sexual characteristics of women. Among the secondary sexual
 features of women are breasts growing, broad pelvic girdle,
menstrual cycles start and hair grow in armpits and pubic parts.
5. The table below shows the differences occurring during puberty
between men and women.

Puberty of male Puberty of female

Start in between 12 – 14 years Start in between 11 – 13 years old
old
The testicles begin to produce Ovaries start producing ovum and
male sex hormones and female sex hormones.
sperms. Physical changes:
Physical changes: 1. Body becomes taller and
1. Body becomes taller and bigger.
muscular. 2. Breast and pelvic girdle
2. Penis and testes enlarge. enlarge.
3. Hair begins to grow in 3. Hair started to grow on the
advance (moustache and armpit and pubic part.
beard). 4. Collect fat under the skin.
4. Hair begins to grow on the 5. Menstrual cycle started.
armpit and genital area.
5. The voice becomes rough.
Started to be attracted to Started to be attracted to men.
women.

4.3 Menstrual cycle

1. Monthly bleeding is the deterioration of the uterine wall liner and
the flow of blood from the uterus through the vagina.
2. Period or menses usually lasts between three to five days.
Menstruation occurs once within 28 days. This period is called the
menstrual cycle.
3. Menstrual cycle begins when a woman reaches puberty and ends
when she is in the late 40s or early 50s.
4. Menstrual cycle can be divided into 4 main phases. The table
below shows the phases in the menstrual cycle.
 Days in Phase
menstrual
cycle
1-5 1. Menstrual phase
- Discharge of the uterine wall.
- Disposal (disassembly) non-compounded
ovum, blood and uterine wall.
6-11 2. Recovery phase
- Thickening and reconstruction of the uterine
wall.
- Forming more blood vessels.
12-17 3. Fertile phase or ovulation
- The walls of the uterus and blood vessels
continue to develop.
- Ovulation (ovum release) occurs on day 14
18-28 4. Premenstrual phase
- The uterus walls become thick and supplied
with many blood vessels for the preparation
of fertilised ovum.
- If fertilisation does not occur, uterus wall will
begin to decline and decompose. The
menstrual cycle reoccurs.

5. Ovum is issued on the 13th to the 15th in the menstrual cycle. The
release of the ovum from the ovary is referred to as a ovulation
6. Women may experience premenstrual syndrome immediately before
menstruation. Symptoms include abdominal pain, headaches, stress,
anxiety and moody emotions.
7. Stage when women stop having menstruation is called menopause.
Relationship between the Time of Waiting Cycle with the
Fertilisation Process

1. In general, a woman's menstrual cycle takes about 28 days but

may vary from 21 to 33 days.
2. Every 28 days, one ovum is released from one of the ovaries and
enters the fallopian tube. This process is called ovulation and
usually occurs from day 13 until day 16 in the menstrual cycle.
3. Ovum can live in the fallopian tube for 1 to 2 days. If the reactions
occur on the 14th day, then the released ovum can survive from
day 14 until the 16th day.
4. Sperm can live for 3 to 4 days in the female fallopian tube. When
the sperm is ejected into the female vagina on the day close to the
11th day and is merged with the ovum, then the fertilisation will
occur.
5. Hence, the duration of the ovulation period along with two days
before and two days afterwards, is known as a fertile phase.
6. A woman is most likely to become pregnant if she does sexual
intercourse during this fertile phase.

Importance of Managing Hygiene During Menstruation

1. During menstruation, women need to keep themselves clean in

order to prevent infections in reproductive organs such as urinary
tract infections (UTIs) caused by microorganism infections.
2. Here is how to maintain personal hygiene during menstruation:
(a) Bath regularly to cleanse the body.
(b) Always replace and use clean underwear.
(c) Change a new sanitary napkin every 5 hour to avoid bacterial
and viral infections that can cause urinary tract infections (UTIs).
4.4 Fertilisation and pregnancy
Fertilisation
1. During sex, the penis releases millions of sperm into the vagina.
2. These sperm then swim through the cervix and enter the uterus
before reaching the fallopian tube.
3. If a mature ovum is present in the fallopian tube, fertilisation will
occur. During fertilisation,
(a) Only one sperm will successfully penetrate the ovum.
(b) The head of the sperm penetrates the ovum and its tails are left
outside the ovum.
(c) A membrane is formed around the ovum to prevent other sperm
from entering the ovum.
4. The sperm nucleus is merged with
the ovum nucleus and forming a
zygote. This occurs in the fallopian
tubes. This process is called
fertilisation.

Pregnancy
1. The pregnancy process only begins after fertilisation.
2. After fertilisation, the zygote moves down the fallopian tube to the
uterus.
3. On the way to the uterus, the zygote passes through multiple cell
divisions to become a cell ball called the embryo.
4. The embryo then attaches itself to the lining of the uterine wall and
develops into the foetus.

Zygote Embryo Foetus

Blastocyst Baby

Starting from one cell. The blastocyst is Looks like a Complete baby
Zygote is formed as a produced by human. (37 - 40 weeks).
result of the ovum and zygote cell division Legs and All organs are
sperm combine. Then it many times (up to arms can be formed perfectly
divides into two cells the 8th week). clearly seen. and functionally.
and so on.
 5. The duration of the pregnancy starts from the time the embryo
stays in the uterus wall until the baby is born. Pregnancy takes
about 37 - 40 weeks, until the baby is fully formed and ready to be
born.
6. The diagram and table below show the processes involved in
fertilisation and attachment of embryo.

4 3

5
6
2

1
8

Stage Process Definition and explanation

1 Ovulation Release of mature ovum from the ovary
into the fallopian tube.
2 Fertilisation The sperm nucleus merges with the
nucleus of the ovum in the fallopian tubes.

3,4,5,6,7 Cell division Zygote divides many times into an embryo

series on the way to the uterus.
8 Implantation Attachment of the embryo on the uterine
wall line and the development of the
embryo in the uterus wall.

Embryo attachment
1. Approximately 7 to 8 days after fertilisation, the embryo arrives in
the uterus and pushes itself to the uterus wall. Attachment of the
embryo on the uterus wall is called implantation.
2. A protective bag and amnion space are formed around the embryo.
3. At this stage, the embryo gets nutrients and oxygen from the blood
vessels on the uterus wall.
Embryo Development Becomes Foetus
1. Embryos continue to grow in the uterus surrounded by a
membrane called amnion.
2. This container contains liquid called amniotic fluid.
3. Approximately 10 to 14 days, the placenta begins to form. The
placenta is built from the embryonic tissue and also the maternal
tissue from the uterine wall.
4. Embryonic cells continue to divide many times. In eight weeks, the
foetus is formed.
5. The foetus is connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord.
6. Foetus continues to grow in the uterus. The fetus continues to
grow in the uterus so it is born as a baby
7. Foetus has its own blood circulatory system that does not mix with
the mother's blood.
8. The table below shows a summary of the structural functions
involved in the development of the foetus.

Structure Definition and function

Amnion The membrane that forms the amnion pouch.
Function: surround and protect the embryo.
Amniotic Fluid in the amnion pouch.
fluid Function: act as cushion or absorption of shock to protect
the foetus from physical injury.
Placenta A disc-shaped structure constructed of uterine tissue
tissues and contains many blood vessels.
Umbilical Blood vessels that connect the foetus to the placenta.
cord Function: The umbilical cord vena discharges food and
oxygen from the placenta to the foetus. The umbilical cord
arteries provide nutrients such as carbon dioxide and urea
from the foetus to the placenta.

Placent
a
Umbilical
cord
Amnion

Amniotic
fluid
 - Embryo length - Eyes, hands - The embryo is
is 0.5 cm and feet are now called the
- The heart starts formed foetus
to throb - The organs - Foetus size 8 -
- Spine and are formed 10 inches
nervous system - Bones replace - All organ
are shaped cartilage systems work
- Has a skeletal
system, nerves
and blood
circulation
- Vocals are
formed

- The foetus is more - The foetus is fully formed

than 12 inches long - Foetus stopped growing a week
- Can recognize the before birth
voice of the mother - Head towards the cervix
- Can kick and sob - The uterus walls are strongly
- Can open and close contracted; the amnion sac is broken
eyes and the amniotic fluid comes out.
- The foetus is pushed out through the
vagina and out of the body as a baby.
Birth of a baby
1. About 37 - 40 weeks, the baby is ready to be born.
2. During birth:
(a) Amnion sac break and amniotic fluid flow out.
(b) Muscle of uterus contract.
(c) Cervix opened.
(d) Contraction force pushes the baby out through vagina.
3. The diagram below shows the order of processes before embryo
formation into a baby.

Ovulation
Fertilisation
Implantation
Formation of foetus from
embryo
Birth of baby

4.5 Factors Influencing Foetus and Infant Development

Balanced Nutrition Consumption

 During the pregnancy, the foetus acquires all nutrients from the
mother.
 Therefore, pregnant women should take balanced nutrition to
ensure good health and development of the foetus. Pregnant
women need higher calories than women who are not pregnant.
 Protein: the formation of new foetus cells and tissues.
 Carbohydrates and fat: provide energy for mother's daily activity
and foetus growth.
 Calcium and phosphorus: maintaining the formation of bones
and teeth of the foetus and the pregnant women.
 Vitamin: ensures the health of the foetus and strengthens the
mother's defence system.
 Iron: formation of foetal red blood cells and prevent anaemia in the
mother.
 Fibre: prevent constipation problems in pregnant women.
Avoiding Intake of Harmful Materials

● SMOKING ●DRUG ABUSE ●DRINKING

ALCOHOL

Smoking Drug abuse Drinking alcohol

Habit Negative effect

Smoking - The risk of miscarriage
- Birth of premature baby
- The death of a baby in the womb or at birth
- The birth of a retarded or physically disabled baby
Drinking - Infants with Foetal Alcohol Syndrome such as mental
alcohol retardation, stunted growth, organ damage, physical
impairment and underweight
-The function of the brain and internal organs is affected
Drug - Foetal defect
abuse - premature birth
- physical defects
- dizzy (level of intelligence and low fitness)
- miscarriage or infant death in the womb
Breastfeeding for Baby Development

Mothers are encouraged to breastfeed their babies from birth to two

years of age. Although there are many choices of formula milk on the
market, however breastfeeding has proven to have better natural
nourishment for baby development.
 Breast milk contains all the nutrients needed by the baby for
growth and health.
 Breast milk contains natural antibodies that can resist some type of
illness.
 Breast milk facilitates baby digestion.
 Strengthen the emotional connection between the baby and the
mother.

Sterility and Prevention of Pregnancy

1. Two important issues involving human reproduction are infertility and
prevent pregnancy.
2. Infertility means inability to give birth to a child.
3. Infertility can occur in men and women.
4. Methods to overcome infertility in humans.
(a) Healthy eating
(i) Take nutritious food and balanced nutrition.
(ii) Prevent alcohol and drug abuse.

(b)Hormone treatment
(i) Hormone pills or hormone injection are used to stimulate
ovaries to produce ovum for women.
(ii) The same method is also used to produce active, mature
and healthy sperm for men.

(c) Surgery
Growth of tissue that blocks the fallopian tubes or sperm ducts
can be removed by surgery.

(d)IVF method (in vitro fertilisation)

(i) This is a fertilisation technique of ovum with sperm done
outside the body.
 (ii) Mature ovum is transferred into a petri dish containing a
culture solution.
(iii) Sperm is then transferred to the petri dish for fertilization.
(iv) The resulting zygote is then attached to the mother's
uterus wall. The baby born is a test tube baby.
(v) This technique is usually performed on women whose
fallopian tube is blocked.

Infertility in men Infertility in women

- Testis can not produce sperm - Ovary can not produce ovum or
- Low sperm count release mature ovum (abnormal
- Immobility of sperm ovulation)
-Sperm is dead too early (before - Ovum died too early
reaching the fallopian tubes) - Embryonic disability to attach itself
- Defective reproductive organs - to the uterus wall
such as damage of testis and - Abnormal growth in the uterus that
sperm ducts prevents embryonic attachment
-Impotent, where the sperm can not - Defect of reproductive organs such
be transmitted to the vagina as clogged fallopian tubes
Sex hormones are inadequate or the occurrence of hormonal imbalance
Health problems such as high blood pressure and diabetes
Infected by sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhoea and
syphilis

4.6 Prevention of Pregnancy

1. Prevention of pregnancy is a method of preventing unwanted
pregnancies.
2. Widespread prevention methods used in family planning.
3. Couples may have their own reasons to do family planning. They
may
(a) Not ready to have children
(b) They do not want to have any children
(c) Want to delay the birth of their children
4. Prevention methods of pregnancy can be done naturally,
mechanically, hormone, chemically or surgically.
(a) Natural method: rhythmical methods
(b) Hormone method: contraceptive pill
(c) Physical methods: condoms, IUCDs, diaphragms
(d) Chemical method: spermicide
(e) Surgical methods: ligation, vasectomy
 5. Prevention methods of pregnancy are based on three principles:-
(a) Prevent ovulation
(b) Prevent fertilisation
(c) Prevent implantation of ovum that has been fertilised.
6. The following table shows some methods that can be taken to
control the pregnancy:-
Type of Way Explanation Principle of
pregnant method
prevention
Natural Rhythmical Avoid sexual intercourse during To prevent
method methods the fertile period, ie from the fertilisation
12th to the 16th day in the
menstrual cycle
Hormone Contraceptive Hormone pills taken by women To prevent
method pill who prevent the ovaries from ovulation
releasing the ovum. This pill
must be eaten daily for 21 days
after menstruation
Physical Condom Rubber attached to male penis To prevent
method to prevent sperm from entering fertilisation
the cervix or uterus
IUD Contraceptive device placed in To prevent
the uterus by the doctor and left implantation
in the body for 2 to 3 years of foetus in
the wall of
uterus
Diaphragm A soft, thin rubber finish placed To prevent
on the female cervix to prevent fertilisation
sperm from entering the cervix
or uterus
Chemical Spermicide Chemical ingredients in the To prevent
method form of jelly, foam or cream. fertilisation
Spermicide is inserted into the
vagina before sex to kill the
sperm that enters the vagina
Ligation Surgery is performed to remove To prevent
(female the middle part of the two fertilisation
sterilisation) fallopian tubes and the open
ends are then tied to prevent the
ovum from moving along the
fallopian tube to meet the
 sperm
Surgery Vasectomy Surgery is performed to cut one To prevent
method (male side of each sperm structure fertilisation
sterilisation) and both ends are then tied to
prevent sperm from moving to
the urethra

The Importance of Health Screening and Treatment when Facing

the Problems of the Breeding System
1. Everyone is advised to undergo a health examination at least once
a year when reached 40 years old.
2. Health checks are important for detecting chronic diseases.
3. Diseases involving the reproductive system include cervical cancer,
ovarian cancer and fibroids in women while prostate cancer in men.
These diseases can be treated if detected early.
4. In addition, health checks on the reproductive system can also:
(a) Help husband and wife overcome infertility problems.
(b) Assist the husband and wife to plan a family with suitable
method.
(c) Maintain the health of the reproductive system.
(d) Treat and prevent cancerous diseases involving the
reproductive system.

Knowledge on Pregnancy Prevention Methods

1. Positive effects on pregnancy prevention methods to the

community:
(a) Help prevent unwanted pregnancy.
(b) Allow the couple to plan the number of family members.
(c) Overcoming the problem of overpopulation.
2. Negative effects on pregnancy prevention methods to the
community:
(a) Promoting illegal sex.
(b) Illegal sex can lead to the spread of sexually transmitted
diseases such as AIDS, gonorrhoea and syphilis.
(c) Some methods of preventing pregnancy can cause health
problems such as heart disease, hypertension and permanent
infertility.
4.7 Reproduction of plant
Sexual reproduction of flowering plant
1. Like humans and animals, flowering plants also breed sexually.
2. Flowers are the sexually reproductive organs of flowering plants.
3. Flowers consist of sepals, petal, pistil (carpel) and stamens.
4. Stamens are male reproductive parts that are composed of
filament, anther and pollen.
5. Pistil is a female breeding section of stigma, style, ovary and ovule.
6. Pollen grains containing male gametes (male reproductive cells)
are produced by anther in stamens while ovules that produce
female gametes (eggs or ovum) develop from a layer of tissue
found in carpel or pistils.

Anther: produces pollen

grains, which are male Pollen: keep male
reproductive cells. reproductive cells

Filament: support the

anther.

Stamens (male reproductive parts)

Stigma: a structure that receives

pollen grains.
Style: a tube that links stigma and ovaries.

Ovary: structure Ovule: produces eggs or ovum, a

containing ovules. female reproductive cell.

Pistil (female reproductive parts)

The Structure of the Flower and Its Function

Pistil

Stamen

Petal: a flower that is usually colourful

and can attract insects to carry out
pollination.

Sepal: a leaf-like structure that protects

the flower during mild stages

Pistil Pollen grain

of hibiscus

Part of flower Function

Petal Attracts bird or insect attention to pollination
Sepal Protects the flowers during mild stages
Anther Generates pollen grains
Filament Holds and supports the anther
Stigma Receives pollen grains during pollination
Style Holds stigma and links ovary and stigma
Ovary Produces and stores ovule

1. Flowering plants produce flowers for breeding.

2. Flowers are plants breeding organs.
3. The surface of the stigma of the flowers is sticky so the pollen
grains may stick to it during pollination.
4. Stamens are the male breeding part whereas the pistil is the
female breeding part.
5. Pollen grains containing males are found in the anther.
 6. Types of flower

Example of bisexual
Example of unisex plant
plant
There are two types of flowers
 unisex flowers that contain either stamens or pistils only
 bisexual flowers containing both stamens and pistils. For unisex flowers,
only female flowers containing pistils can grow and form fruit and seeds.

Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a male part of a plant to a
female part of a plant, enabling fertilisation and the production of
seeds, most often by animal or by wind.

1. Pollination is a very important process in the breeding of flowering

plant.
2. Pollination allows the male gametes in pollen grains to be
transferred to a stigma to merge with the female in the ovule
during the ripening period.
3. There are two types of pollination, namely:
(a) Self pollination
3

 Occurs when pollen grains are transferred from the anther to

stigma on other flowers on the same tree.
 Involves only one tree.
  The resulting seedlings have the same characteristics and
lower disease resistance.

(b)Cross pollination
Cross pollination

Pollen
Grain

 Occurs when pollen grains are transferred from a flower to

stigma of another flower on different trees of same species.
 Involve two identical plant species.
 The resulting tree has different features and can adapt better
to the new environment.

Pollinating agent
1. Pollen grains cannot move by themselves and require agents to
help them spread themselves to stigma.

Pollination agents are mediums or organisms that help move

pollen to stigma.

Pollinating Way of pollination Characteristic of flower Example of

agent that need pollination plant
agent
Wind - Pollen grains blown - Large anther and long - Grass
by wind from the filament. - Corn
anther to another - Stamens hanging out of - Paddy
flower stigma. flowers. plant
- Pollen grains can - Style and stigma are long
be brought to distant and hairy to trap grains of
places. pollen.
- Small and light pollen
grains.
- Petal is faded and less
attractive.
- No nectar and no
fragrance.
Water - Pollen granules of - Light and abundant pollen - Water
aquatic plants are grains. hyacinth
released into the - Pollen grains can float on - Hydrilla
water and drained to the water and not decay. - Elodea
another flower
stigma.
Insects - The pollen grains - Small anther. - Hibiscus
(butterflies and attached to the body - Short stamen inside the - Sunflower
bees) and legs of the flower. - Rose
insects will be - Big pollen, rough, heavy,
transferred to the sticky and slightly grainy.
stigma when the - Short style and stigma.
insects land on the - Produce nectar and have
same flower or other colourful and big petals.
flowers.
Animals (bats - Pollen grains - Large petals and bright - Durian
and birds) attached to the colour. plant
animal’s beak and - Produce nectar and has - Papaya
body are transferred fragrance. plant
to the stigma when - Rambutan
the animal moves. plant

2) Animals, insects, water and wind are the main pollination agents.
3) The flowers pollinate by different agents have different flowering
characteristics.

Benefits of cross pollination

1. Cross-pollination has advantages over self-pollination as the resulting
seedlings have genetic material from both parents.
2. Advantages of cross-pollination include:
(a) Can produce a healthier seedling and have a high resistance to
disease and pest infestation.
(b) Can produce new varieties of trees.
(c) Can produce high quality seeds.
(d) Can produce high quality and good fruit.

Cross Pollination Application in Agriculture

1. In Malaysia, cross-pollination is widely applied in agriculture.

2. A tree with the desired characteristics of both parent trees is crushed
to improve the quality and quantity of agricultural produce.
3. Examples of cross-pollination results in agriculture in Malaysia:
 (a) Intermediate between palm oil Dura sp. with Pisifera sp. produce
Tenera sp. which contains more oil.
(b) Fresh varieties of rice such as MR103 rice breeds that produce
high quality rice and MR211 rice breeds with short maturity have
been produced.
(c) Fresh maize varieties, Masmadu, which has a large and sweet
corn.

Proses of fertilisation

1. Pollen grains fall on the stigma will stimulate formation of a pollen

tube that serves to transport the male gamete into the ovule.
2. In the ovule, the fertilisation
between male gametes and 1. When pollen grains fall on a stigma, the
female gametes will occur. sugary solution at the tip of the stigma
Pollen grain will stimulate the pollen grains to
Male gamete germinate and decompose the pollen
tubes.
2. The pollen tubes that carry the male
Pollen tube
gametes grow throughout the style
leading to the ovary, there is an ovule
ovary containing a female gamete.
3. When the pollen tube penetrates the
Female ovule through the micropyle the end of
gamete the burst tube and the male gamete in
it will be released. Male gametes
ovulate and merge with female
gametes to form zygote through the
process of fertilisation.

3. After fertilisation, zygote divides and develops into embryos.

4. Ovule develops into seed that protects the embryo and the ovary
continues to grow into fruit.

After the Ovule

fertilization, develops into
the petals, The ovaries seeds in the
sepals, will grow into fruit and the
stigmas and fruit. ovaries
style parts will continue to
wither and fall. grow into fruit.
Seeds Structure and Its Functions
1. The seed consists of an embryo coated by a protective layer called
testa or seed skin.
2. Embryo consists of plumule, radicle and one or two cotyledons.
3. Seeds with two cotyledons are named as dicotyledon seeds while
seed with one cotyledon are named as monocotyledon seeds.
4. Food for embryos is stored either inside the cotyledon or endosperm.
5. The structure of seed and its function is summarized in the table
below.

Bean seeds
(Dicotiledon)

Corn seeds
(Monocotyledon)

Structure of seed Function

Testa Protect the seed
Micropyle Allow air and water to enter the seed
Hilum Stick the seed on the ovary wall
Plumule Grow and develop into shoots
Radicle Grow and develop into roots
Cotyledon Store food (starch)
Seed germination

1. Seed germination is the process of early growth of seed embryos into

seedlings.
2. Here are two types of germination, namely epigeal and hypogeal
germination.
Epigeal germination Hypogeal germination

Epigeal germination
where cotyledons grow Hypogeal incidence where
upwards (bitter guard) cotyledons remain beneath
the ground (corn plant)

Seed germination requirements

The seeds will germinate when they get the appropriate water, air and
temperature.
 Water
Softens testa and acts as medium to activate enzymes that
convert storage into soluble foods needed by the embryo.
 Suitable temperature
The appropriate temperature can activate the enzyme. Most seeds
germinate at temperatures between 10˚C to 35˚C.
 Air
Contains oxygen needed for cell respiration. Cell respiration will
liberate the energy needed by seed to germinate.
Experiment 4.1
Problem statement: Is the appropriate air, water and temperature
necessary to germinate seeds?
Hypotheses: Seeds require air, water and temperature
appropriate for germination.
Purpose: Determine the seed germination
requirements.
Manipulated variable: Presence of optimum water, air and
temperature.
Responding variable: Germination of seed.
Fixed variable: Number and type of seed.
Materials and apparatus: Seed, cotton, water, oil, cooled boiling water,
boiling tubes, boiler tubes, labels, black
papers and refrigerators.
Procedure:
1. Four test tubes labelled P, Q, R, S are provided as follows.
(a) Test tubes P - two seeds are loaded into a test tube containing wet
cotton and stored in the lab (room temperature).
(b) Test tubes Q - two seeds are put into a test tube containing cooled
boiling water. Few oils are inserted to coat the surface of the
boiling water and are stored in the lab (room temperature).
(c) Test tubes R - Two seeds are placed in a test tube containing dry
cotton and stored in lab (room temperature).
(d) Test tubes S - Two seeds are loaded into a test tube containing
wet cotton and stored in the refrigerator.
2. Seedlings in each test tube are observed whether they sprout or not
after three days.
3. The material present in each test tube and the observation of
germination of seed in the test tube concerned is recorded. The
findings are recorded in the table.
Result:
Seedlings placed in presence of
Test
Optimum
tube Water Air Observation
temperature
P √ √ √ Seed germinated
Q √ X √ Seed didn’t germinate
R X √ √ Seed didn’t germinate
S √ √ X Seed didn’t germinate
Conclusion: Seeds require appropriate water, air and temperature
to germinate.
 Reproduction

Prevent extinction Produce new individual

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

- There is no reproductive cell - Involves the breeding of two
and only involves a mature parent breeding cells (males
parent. and females) whether internal
or external fertilisation.
- Examples: binary fussion,
budding, spore formation, - Examples: humans,
regeneration, vegetative vertebrates, insects and most
propagation and tissue culture. flowering plants.

Human reproduction

Male reproductive system Female reproductive system

 Testis Ovary
y
Male sex hormones Sperm + Ovum Female sex hormones
that cause penis causing breast and
enlargement, pubic pelvic enlargement,
Fertilisation and
hair growth, rough pubic hair growth and
pregnancy
voice fat accumulation under
the skin.
The placenta supplies
nutrients, oxygen and Zygote
antibodies to embryos through
the cord while foetal excretion
such as carbon dioxide and Embryo embedded
urea are removed to the
placenta via the cord.

Foetal
Pregnant women must eat
development
nutritious food and stay away
from alcohol, cigarettes and
drugs.
Birth

Breast feeding Baby

Encouraged

Sterility

- Defective reproductive organs - Hormone treatment

- Inbalanced sex hormones Reason
- Sperm duct / fallopian tube - Surgery
clogged - in vitro fertilisation
Overcome by
- Low quality gamete

Family planning

- Use of condom
- Use of contraceptives in the uterus (IUCD).
- Consume of contraceptive pills
- Use of implants.
- Vasectomy.
- Ligation.
 Breeding of flowering plants (sex) breeding)

Reproductive organ (flower) Pollination

Cross-pollination

Pollen
grain

Pistil

Female Male
gamete gamete

through
Pollination
Fertilisation Pollination agents (Wind,
water, insects or animals)

Ovary  fruit
Ovule  seed Stimulate Sufficient temperature,
water and air (oxygen) are
Zygote  Embryo adequate.

Seed germination