Joann Kwek

Parts of the eye

 Sclera – Tough, white outer-covering of the eye that protects the
eyeball from mechanical injury. It is continuous with the cornea
 Cornea – Dome-shaped, transparent layer continuous with the
sclera. It aids in the refraction of light into the eye. Largest amount
of refraction occurs here.
 Conjunctiva – Thin, transparent membrane covering the sclera. It is
a mucous membrane that secretes mucus to keep the front of the
eyeball moist. It is continuous with the skin of the eyelids
 Eyelids – Responsible for 3 main actions: prevent excessive light
from entering the eye (squinting), protecting the cornea from
mechanical damage, spreading tears over cornea and conjunctiva,
and wiping dust particles off cornea.
 Eyelash – Responsible for keeping dust particles out of the eye
 Tear gland – Located at the upper corner of the eyelid. It secretes
tears which have 4 main purposes: keep eyeball moist for dissolving
of atmospheric oxygen, wipe away dust particles, lubricate the
conjunctiva to reduce friction when eyelids move
 Rectus muscle – Attaches eyeball to orbit of skull
 Iris – Circular sheet of muscle that contains pigment that gives eyes
its colour. It is responsible for controlling how much light enters the
eye
 Pupil – Hole in the centre of the iris. It is responsible for allowing
light to enter the eye
 Choroid – Middle layer of the eyeball that is pigmented black to
prevent internal reflection of light. It supplies the eye with nutrients
and oxygen while also transporting metabolic waste products away
from the eye
 Ciliary body – Thickened region at the front end of the choroid. It
contains ciliary muscles that control the curvature of the lens
 Suspensory Ligaments – Attach the edges of the lens to the ciliary
body
 Aqueous chamber – Area between lens and cornea. Contains
aqueous humour which is a transparent, watery fluid that keeps the
front of the eyeball firm. It plays a role in refracting light onto the
pupil
 Vitreous chamber – Area behind the lens. Contains vitreous humour
which is a transparent, jelly-like substance. It plays a role in
refracting light onto the retina
 Lens – Transparent, circular and biconvex structure that is elastic. It
is responsible for changing shape to refract light onto the retina
 Retina – The innermost layer of the eyeball. It is a light-sensitive
layer that contains light-sensitive cells known as photoreceptors.
Photoreceptors are made up of cones and rods. Cones help us see
colour in bright light while rods help us to see black and white in dim
light.
 Fovea – Small, yellow depression in the retina, situated directly
behind the lens. It has the highest concentration of cones but no
rods. It is the place where images are focused
Joann Kwek

 Optic nerve – Nerve that transmit nerve impulses from eye to brain
when photoreceptors are stimulated
 Blind spot – The region where the optic nerve leaves the eye. It has
no rods or cones and therefore, light insensitive.

Pupil Reflex (Cranial Reflex)

 In bright light
o In the iris, circular muscles contract while radial muscles relax
o Pupil diameter decreases  less light enters the eye
 In dim light
o In the iris, circular muscles relax while radial muscles contract
o Pupil diameter increases  more light enters the eye

Reflex Arc (Pupil Reflex)

 The stimulus for the pupil reflex is a change in light intensity
 Eye receives the stimulus and photoreceptors in the retina detect
the change  nerve impulses initiated by photoreceptors travel a
sensory neuron in the optic nerve to the brain
 In the brain, nerve impulses are transmitted across a synapse to a
interneuron and across another synapse to a motor neuron.
 Nerve impulses are transmitted via the motor neuron to circular and
radial muscles located in the iris.
 Other relevant effectors include eyelids and hands (seek shelter)

Layers in the retina

 Cones
o Help us see colour in bright light
o Comes in three colours/types of pigments, red blue and green
o Absorb light of different wavelengths
 Rods
o Help us see black and white in dim light
o More light-sensitive than cones
Joann Kwek

o Contains pigment known as visual purple which requires

vitamin A to produce
o Deficiency can lead night blindness
o Visual purple bleaches in bright light  no nerve impulses
sent to optic nerve

How we see
 Images formed on the retina are inverted, laterally inverted and
smaller than the actual object size
 Brain interprets impulses sent via the optic nerve to allow us to see
images from front to back, right way up and of the right size

Focusing and Accommodation

 Accommodation is the adjustment of the lens of the eye such that
clear images of objects at different distances can be formed on the
retina
 Distant objects (>7m)
o Light rays reflecting off the object are almost parallel.
o Ciliary muscles relax  pulls on the suspensory ligaments,
causing them to become taut.
o Suspensory ligaments increase pull on the lens  makes in
thinner and less convex  increasing focal length
o Light rays focused sharply on the retina  photoreceptors
stimulated
o Nerve impulses transmitted via optic nerve to the brain
Joann Kwek

o Brain interprets impulses and the distant object is seen

 Near objects (<7m)

o Light rays reflecting off the object are diverging
o Ciliary muscles contract  releases pull on suspensory
ligaments, causing them to become relaxed
o Suspensory ligaments decrease pull on the lens  makes it
thicker and more convex  decreasing focal length
o Light rays focused sharply on the retina  photoreceptors
stimulated
o Nerve impulses transmitted via optic nerve to the brain
o Brain interprets impulses and the distant object is seen