Homologous Chromosomes

 A pair of chromosomes of the same length and have the same

sequence of genes
 One of maternal origin and one of paternal origin
Alleles
 Alternative forms of a gene that occupy the same relative locus on a
pair of homologous chromosomes
Cell Cycle
 Interphase
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Cytokinesis
Interphase
 Resting, non-dividing stage of cell division
 Cell continues to take in nutrients to build protoplasm
 Chromosomes cannot be individually distinguished and exist as long
thin threads of chromatin
 In preparation for cell division, DNA replicates to form 2 identical
chromatin threads
 DNA replication is precisely controlled and copies all information in
chromosomes to ensure that daughter cells are genetically stable 
have all DNA sections required for subsequent cell division and
differentiation
 (animals) centrioles divide
 (plants) centrosomes appear

Mitosis
 The type of nuclear division that results in 2 genetically identical
daughter cells
 Nuclei of daughter cells are diploid
Prophase
 Chromatin threads coil, condense and shorten to form chromosomes
 Each chromosome comprises of 2 sister chromatids joined at the
centromere
 Centrioles move to opposite poles of the spindle
 Asters form around the centrioles
 Spindle fibres form and extend from poles towards each other
 Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear
Metaphase
 Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle
 Spindle fibres attached to sister chromatids at the centromere
Anaphase
 Centromeres separate
 Spindle fibres start to shorten  sister chromatids pulled to opposite
poles
 Once separated, sister chromatids are known as daughter
chromosomes

Telophase
 Daughter chromosomes reach the poles
 Spindle fibres disintegrate
 Nuclear envelope reforms around chromosomes at each pole
 Nucleolus reforms as well
 Chromosomes lengthen and uncoil  chromatin threads
Cytokinesis
 Division of the cytoplasm
 (animals)
o Cleavage furrows formed in the cytoplasm between the two
nuclei
o Cleavage furrows deepen and eventually divides the cell into two
 two daughter cells
 (plants)
o Cell plate forms between the two nuclei
o Vesicles from the Golgi apparatus line up at the equator of the
spindle
o Vesicles fuse with each other to form a cell plate
o Cell plate elongates and fuses with the cell wall
o Eventually partitions the cell into two
Importance of Mitosis
 Asexual reproduction in plants
 Produces new cells for growth (permanent increase in size) 
accomplished via cell differentiation and division to form tissues and
organs
o Animals: growth until maturation and occurs throughout the body
 o Plants: growth throughout lifespan, occurs only at root tips and
shoot tips
 Healing of wounds
 Repairing worn-out body parts
Meiosis
 The type of nuclear division that produces 4 genetically dissimilar
daughter cells
 Nuclei of daughter cells are haploid.
 2 successive divisions with only 1 DNA replication
 Involves a reduction division
 For production of gametes
Interphase
 Centrioles divide
 Chromatin threads replicate  2 identical chromatin threads
 Chromosomes not visible
Prophase I
 Chromatin threads coil, shorten and condense  chromosomes
 Homologous chromosomes pair up along their length (synapsis)
 Centrioles move to opposite poles of the spindle
 Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear
 Spindle fibres extend from poles towards each other
 Crossing over may occur  non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes cross and twist around each other  chiasma
o Break and exchange chromatid segments between paternal and
maternal chromosomes  genetic variation
Metaphase I
 Pairs of homologous chromosomes pair up along the equator of the
spindle
 Spindle fibres attach to centromeres of homologous chromosomes
 Random arrangement of homologous chromosomes  independent
assortment  genetic variation

Anaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes are separated
 Pulled by shortening spindle fibres to opposite poles
 No splitting of centromeres
Telophase I
 Homologous chromosomes reach the poles
 Spindle fibres disintegrate
 Nuclear envelope reforms around homologous chromosomes at each
pole
 Followed by cytokinesis to produce 2 haploid daughter cells
 Centrioles divide and cells build up protoplasm
Prophase II
 Centrioles move to opposite poles of the spindle (right angle to spindle
axis of meiosis I)
 Spindle fibres form
 Nuclear envelope disintegrates
 No DNA replication
Metaphase II
 Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle (right angle to
spindle axis of meiosis II)
 Spindle fibres attach to sister chromatids at centromere
Anaphase II
 Centromeres separate
 Spindle fibres shorten and pull sister chromatids to opposite poles
 Once separated  known as daughter chromosomes
Telophase II
 Daughter chromosomes reach the poles
 Nuclear envelope reforms around chromosomes at each pole
 Nucleolus also reforms
 Spindle fibres disintegrate
 Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen  become indistinct
 Cytokinesis follows to form 4 daughter cells of haploid nuclei

Important of Meiosis
 Gives rise to genetic variation through crossing over and independent
assortment
 Produces haploid gametes  diploid zygote
 Maintains diploid number of chromosomes in species  otherwise
doubling of chromosomes for each successive species
Importance of genetic variation
 Increases chances of survival
 Natural selection where nature selects individuals with favourable traits
to survive  selective advantage
 These individuals able to survive in changing environmental conditions
 Able to survive and reproduce
 Pass on favourable traits to offspring
 Ensure survival of species in changing environmental conditions
Points Meiosis Mitosis
Pairing of homologous Yes No
chromosomes
Crossing over Yes No
Arrangement of In pairs Single row
chromosomes
Nuclei of daughter Haploid Diploid
cells
No. of daughter cells 4 2
Genetic makeup Genetically dissimilar Genetically Identical
Separation Homologous Chromatids in
chromosomes in Anaphase
Anaphase I and
chromatids in
Anaphase 2
No. of divisions 2 1