Chapter Three

Research Design

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Chapter outline 
3.1. Research Design: Meaning, Importance, 

And Components
o 
3.2. Purposes of studies 
3.3. Research Approaches o 
3.4. Research Strategies 
o 
3.5. 
 o 


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3.1. Research Design: Meaning, Importance and Elements
After the researcher has formulated the research problem, he or she must develop the research
design as part of the research design stage.

Research design constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data. Research design is the plan and structure of the investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research. It
includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing hypotheses and their
operational implications to the final analysis of data.
Research design expresses both the structure of the problem and the plan of investigation
used to obtain empirical evidence on those relationship. These definitions differ in detail, but
together they give the essentials of research design.
o An activity and time based plan
o A plan always based on the research questions
o A guide for selecting sources, and types of information
o A for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables
o A procedural outline for every research activity
Need for research design
o It facilitates the smooth operation of various research activities
o It makes research as efficient as possible yielding maximum information with
minimum expenditure
o It helps the researcher to organize ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for
him/her to look for flaws and inadequacies
o Design can be given to others for their comments and critical evaluation. In the
absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critics to provide a
comprehensive review of the proposed study
Elements of Research Design
Research design involves a series of rational decision-making choices and
issues. The various decision areas (elements) involved in research design
can be grouped into the following (Sekaran, 2006; Saunders et al, 2009;
Cooper and S
A  D
B  
C  
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 
 
The first five of the research design issues are discussed in great detail in
the following sections. A chapter is devoted for each of the last four
design issues
3.2. Purpose of the Research
The way in which you asked your research question would result in descriptive, descriptive
and explanatory, or explanatory answers. In thinking about your research question, you
inevitably have begun to think about the purpose of your research. The classification of
research purpose most often used in the research methods’ literature is the threefold one of
exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. However, in the same way as your research
question can be both descriptive and explanatory, so your research project may have more
than one purpose.

1. Exploratory Study
o Initial research conducted to clarify and define the nature of a problem
o Does not provide conclusive evidence
o Subsequent research expected
o Much exploratory research provides qualitative data
o Exploratory research does not involve rigorous mathematical analysis.
o The focus is on words, and observations: stories, visual portrayals,
characterizations.
Categories of Exploratory Research
A researcher may choose from four general categories of exploratory
research methods-experience survey, secondary data analysis, case
studies and pilot studies.
Experience Surveys
o Ask knowledgeable/experienced individuals who have had personal experience in the
field.
– most are quite willing
– Quite informal; may not much more than conversation
– May be conducted by the line manager
– Not expected to be conclusive

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 o Not necessary to establish a representative probable sample.
Secondary Data Analysis
Data collected for a purpose other than the project at hand
o Economical
o Quick source for background information
o Extensive review of literature is conducted mainly in basic research.
o May be equally important in applied research.
o It is also a technique for descriptive and conclusive research.
Case Studies
o To Intensely investigate one or a few situations similar to the researcher’s problem
situation.
o Investigate in depth and attention to detail.
o Careful study
o May require cooperation
o The results should be seen as tentative; making generalizations from a few cases can
be misleading/dangerous.
Pilot Studies
o A collective/generic term
o Any small scale exploratory study that uses sampling
o They do not apply rigorous standards of sampling and analysis.
o Generates primary data, usually for qualitative analysis
o The primary data usually are collected from employees, consumers, voters, or other
subjects of ultimate concern
Example
The following is an example where exploratory research would be
appropriate.
The manger of a multinational corporation is curious to know if the work ethical values of
employees working in its subsidiary in Pennathur city would be different from those of
Americans. There is very little information about Pennathur ( except that it is a small city in
Southern India), and since there is a considerable controversy about wthat work ethic values
mean to people in other cultures, the manager’s curiosity can be satisfied only by an
exploratory study, interviewing the employees in organizations.

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 2. Descriptive research
The goal of descriptive research is to offer to the researcher a profile or to describe relevant
aspects of the phenomenon of interest from an individual, organizational, industry-oriented
perspective. The object of descriptive research is ‘to portray an accurate profile of persons,
events or situations’ (Robson 2002:59).
Below are examples of situations warranting a descriptive research
Example 1: A bank manager wants to have a profile of the individual who have loan
payments outstanding for 6 months and more. It would include details of their average age,
earnings, nature of occupation, and the like. This might help him to elicit further information
or decide right away on the types of individuals who should be made ineligible for loans in
the future.
Example 2: A CEO may be interested in having a description of organizations in her industry
that follow the LIFO system. In this case, the report might include the age of the
organization, their locations, their production levels, assets, sales, inventory levels, suppliers,
and profits. Such information might allow comparison of the performance levels of specific
types of companies.
Example 3: A marketing manager might want to develop a pricing, sales, distribution, and
advertising strategy for her product. With this in mind, she might ask for the information
regarding the competitors, with respect to the following:
o The percentage of sales groups organized by product line, by accountants, and by
region
o The types of distribution channels used
o Percentage of competitors spending more dollars on promotion
o Percentage of those using the web to sell this product.
3. Explanatory Research
Studies that establish relationships between variables may be termed explanatory research.
The emphasis here is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the relationships
between variables.

As per Sekaran (2004), there are two families of explanatory research: casual research and
correlational research. The study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one
or more problems is called a causal study. When the researcher is interested in delineating
the important variables associated with the problem, the study is called a correlational
study.
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A. Casual Research
o necessary to establish a definite cause-and-effect relationship
o Researcher is keen on delineating one or more factors that are undoubtedly causing
the problem. In other words, the intention of the researcher conducting a casual study
is to be able to state that variable X causes variable Y. So, when variable X is
removed or altered in some way, problem Y is solved.
o The researcher tries to manipulate certain variables so as to study the effects such
manipulations on the dependant variable of interest. In other words, the researcher
deliberately changes certain variables in the setting and interferes with the events as
they normally occur.
o They can be carried out in two studies settings- in the natural environment where
work proceeds normally (non contrived) and or in artificial environment (contrived).
Most rigorous causal studies, however, are done in artificial, contrived settings.
o Studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural
environment in which employees normally function are called field experiments.
Here, the researcher interferes with the natural occurrence events in as much as the
independent variable is manipulated.
o Experiments done to establish cause- and-effect relationships beyond the possibility
the least doubt require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all
the extraneous factors are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are chosen carefully to
respond to certain manipulated stimuli. These studies are referred to as lab
experiments.

Example 1
A bank manager wants to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between interest rate
and inducements it offers to clients to save and deposit money in the bank. She selects four
branches within a 60-mile radius for the experiment. For 1 week only, she advertises the
annual rate for a new certificate of deposits received during the week in the following
manner: the interest rate would be 9% in one branch, 8% in another, and 10% in the third. In
the fourth branch, the interest rate remains unchanged at 5%. Within the week, she would be
able determine the effects, if any, of interest rates on deposit mobilization.
Points about this research design

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 o This is a field experiment with non-contrived setting- all activities occur in the normal
and natural work environment.
o The researcher has interfered in only manipulating (altering) the interest rates.
o More likely, all four branches chosen would be more or less compatible in size,
number of depositors, and the like, so that the interest-savings relationships are not
influenced by some third factor. But it is possible that some other factors might affect
the findings.
Example 2
The bank manager now wants to establish the causal connection between interest rates and
savings, beyond doubt. For this purpose, she recruits 40 students who are all business majors
in their final years of study and are more or less of the same age. She splits them into four
groups and gives each one of them chips that counts for $ 1000, which they are told they
might utilize to buy their needs or save for the future, or both. She offers them by way of
incentive; interest on what they save but manipulates the rates by offering a 6% interest rate
on savings for group 1, 8% for group 2, 9% for group 3and keeps the interest at the low rate
of 1% for group 4.
Points about this research design
o An artificial laboratory environment is created. Thus, a contrived setting is chosen.
o The researcher interference has been maximal, in as much as the setting is different,
the independent variable is manipulated, and most external factors such as age and
experience have been controlled.
o If the banker finds that the savings by the four groups increase progressively, keeping
in step with the increasing rates of interest, she would be establish a cause-and-effect
relationship b/n interest and the disposition to save.

B. Correlation Research
o A researcher wants to delineate the important variables associated with the problem.
o A correlation study is conducted in the natural environment of organization (non
contrived setting) with minimal researcher interference.
o Correlation studies conducted in organizations are called field studies.
Example

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The bank manger wants to analyse the relationship b/n interest rates and bank deposit patterns
of clients. She tries to correlate the two by looking at deposits into different kinds of accounts
as interest rates changed.
Points on this research design
o This is a correlation field study
o Research is done in a non-contrived setting with no interference with the normal work
routine
3.3. Research Approaches
3.3.1. Deductive vs. Inductive Approaches
Deductive Approach
Research approach in which you develop a theory and hypothesis (or hypotheses) and design
a research strategy to test the hypothesis. Deduction owes much to what we would think of as
scientific research. It involves the development of a theory that is subjected to a rigorous
test. As such, it is the dominant research approach in the natural sciences. Nonetheless, it is
also widely used in social science arena.

Robson (2002) lists five sequential stages through which deductive research will progress:
1. deducing a hypothesis (a testable proposition about the relationship between two or
more concepts or variables) from the theory;
2. expressing the hypothesis in operational terms (that is, indicating exactly how the
concepts or variables are to be measured), which propose a relationship between two
specific concepts or variables;
3. testing this operational hypothesis;
4. examining the specific outcome of the inquiry (it will either tend to confirm the theory
or indicate the need for its modification);
5. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of the findings.

Deduction possesses several important characteristics. First, there is the search to explain
causal/correlational relationships between variables. Consequently, you develop a hypothesis.
To test this hypothesis you utilize another characteristic, the collection of quantitative data.
Further important characteristic of deduction approach involves ‘controls to allow the
testing of hypotheses’. Your research would use a highly structured methodology to
facilitate replication. An additional important characteristic of deduction is that concepts need
to be operationalized in a way that enables facts to be measured quantitatively. The final
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characteristic of deduction is generalization. In order to be able to generalize statistically
about regularities in human social behavior it is necessary to select samples of sufficient
numerical size.

Inductive approach

A research approach in which you would collect data and develop theory as a result of your
data analysis. Research using an inductive approach is likely to be particularly concerned
with the context in which such events were taking place. Therefore, the study of a small
sample of subjects might be more appropriate than a large number as with the deductive
approach. Researchers in this tradition are more likely to work with qualitative data and to
use a variety of methods to collect these data in order to establish different views of
phenomena.

3.3.2. The Tripartite Research Approaches: Quant. Qual., and Mixed

Three generic research approaches are often discussed in methodological literature (Bryman,
2006; Clark & Creswell, 2015; Creswell, 2009; Greene et al., 1989; Johnson et al., 2007;
Neuman, 2007): quantitative, qualitative, and mixed. Saunders et al. (2009) uses a similar
classification scheme: Mono methods and multi-methods.

In choosing your research methods you will use a single data collection technique and
corresponding analysis procedures (mono method) or use more than one data collection
technique and analysis procedures to answer your research question (multiple methods).

1. Mono Method
If you choose to use a mono method you will combine either a single quantitative data
collection technique, such as questionnaires, with quantitative data analysis procedures; or a
single qualitative data collection technique, such as in-depth interviews, with qualitative data
analysis procedures.

QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

QUALITATIVE Re QUANTITATIVE
Purpose To understand & interpret social interactions To test hypotheses, look at cause
& effect, & make predictions
Group Studied Smaller & not randomly selected Larger & randomly selected
Variables Study of the whole, not variables Specific variables studied

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Type of Data Collected Words, images, or objects Numbers and statistics
Form of Data Collected Qualitative data such as open- ended Quantitative data based on precise
responses, interviews, participant measurements using structured &
observations, field notes, & reflections validated data-collection
instruments
Type of Data Analysis Identify patterns, features, themes Identify statistical relationships
Objectivity and Subjectivity is expected Objectivity is critical
Subjectivity
Role of Researcher Researcher & their biases may be known to Researcher & their biases are not
participants in the study, & participant known to participants in the study,
characteristics may be known to the & participant characteristics are
researcher deliberately hidden from the
researcher (double blind studies)
Results Particular or specialized findings that is less Generalizable findings that can be
generalizable applied to other populations
Scientific Method Exploratory or bottom–up: the researcher Confirmatory or top-down: the
generates a new hypothesis and theory from researcher tests the hypothesis and
the data collected theory with the data.
View of Human Dynamic, situational, social, & personal. Regular & predictable.
Behavior
Most Common Explore, discover, & construct Describe, explain, & predict
Research Objectives
Focus Wide-angle lens; examines the breadth & Narrow-angle lens; tests specific
depth of phenomena hypotheses
Nature of Observation Study behaviour in a natural environment. Study behaviour under controlled
conditions; isolate causal effects
Nature of Reality Multiple realities; subjective Single reality; objective
Final Report Narrative report with contextual description Statistical report with correlations,
& direct quotations from research comparisons of means, &
participants statistical significance of findings

2. Multiple Methods
If you choose to combine data collection techniques and procedures using some form of
multiple methods design, there are four different possibilities.
a) The term multi-method refers to those combinations where more than one data collection
technique is used with associated analysis techniques, but this is restricted within either a
quantitative or qualitative world view.
i) Thus you might choose to collect quantitative data using, for example, both
questionnaires and structured observation analysing these data using statistical
(quantitative) procedures, a multi-method quantitative study.
ii) Alternatively, you might choose to collect qualitative data using, for example, in-depth
interviews and diary accounts and analyse these data using non-numerical (qualitative)
procedures, a multi-method qualitative. Therefore, if you adopted multi-methods you
would not mix quantitative and qualitative techniques and procedures.

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b) Mixed methods approach is the general term for when both quantitative and qualitative
data collection techniques and analysis procedures are used in a research design. It is
subdivided into two types.
i) Mixed-methods research uses quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques
and analysis procedures either at the same time (parallel) or one after the other
(sequential) but does not combine them. This means that although mixed method
research uses both quantitative and qualitative world views at the research methods
stage, quantitative data are analysed quantitatively and qualitative data are analysed
qualitatively. In addition, often either quantitative or qualitative techniques or
procedures predominate.
ii) In contrast, mixed-model research combines quantitative and qualitative data
collection techniques and analysis procedures as well as combining quantitative and
qualitative approaches at other phases of the research such as research question
generation. This means that you may take quantitative data and qualitise it, which is,
convert it into narrative that can be analysed qualitatively. Alternatively, you may
quantitise your qualitative data, converting it into to numerical codes so that it can be
analysed statistically
Reasons for using mixed-methods designs
Reasons Explanation

Use of two or more independent sources of data or data collection methods

Triangulation to corroborate research findings within a study.

Use of one data collection method or research strategy to aid research using
Facilitation another data collection method or research strategy within a study (e.g.
qualitative/quantitative providing hypotheses, aiding measurement,
quantitative/qualitative participant or case selection)

Use of two or more research strategies in order that different

Complementarity aspects of an investigation can be dovetailed (e.g. qualitative plus
quantitative questionnaire to fill in gaps quantitative plus qualitative
questionnaire for issues, interview for meaning)
Use of independent source of data to contextualise main study or use
Generality quantitative analysis to provide sense of relative importance (e.g. qualitative
plus quantitative to set case in broader context; qualitative × quantitative
analysis is to provide sense of relative importance)

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Aid interpretation Use of qualitative data to help explain relationships between quantitative
variables (e.g quantitative/qualitative)

Study different Quantitative to look at macro aspects and qualitative to look at micro aspects
aspects

Solving a puzzle Use of an alternative data collection method when the initial method reveals
unexplainable results or insufficient data

3.4. Research Strategies

In this section we turn our attention to the research strategies you may employ. Each
strategy can be used for exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research (Yin 2003).
However, often allocating strategies to one approach or the other is unduly simplistic. In
addition, we must emphasise that no research strategy is inherently superior or inferior to any
other. Consequently, what is most important is not the label that is attached to a particular
strategy, but whether it will enable you to answer your particular research question(s) and
meet your objectives. Your choice of research strategy will be guided by your research
question(s) and objectives, the extent of existing knowledge, the amount of time and other
resources you have available, as well as your own philosophical underpinnings. Finally, it
must be remembered that these strategies should not be thought of as being mutually
exclusive. For example, it is quite possible to use the survey strategy as part of a case study.
The strategies that we consider subsequently in this section are:
o experiment o grounded theory
o survey o ethnography
o case study o Phenomenology
o action research o Archival research.

3.3.1 Experimental Research Strategy

Definition

Experimentation is a research method that allows evaluation of causal relationship among

variables. The purpose of experimental research is to allow the researcher to control the
research situation so that causal relationships among variables may be evaluated.

Experiments differ from other research methods in terms of degree of control over the
research situation in a typical experiment.
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One variable (the independent variable) is manipulated and its effect on another variable (the
dependant variable) is measured while all other variables that may confound such a r/ship are
eliminated or controlled. The experiments either creates an artificial situation deliberately
manipulate situation.
Examples
Dependant variable Independent variables

Training Vs. Performance

Training program, Training style and Lecturers
Productivity Vs. Change work situations
Basic Issues in Experimental Design
1. Manipulation of the independent variable (s)
2. Experimental treatments and groups
3. Selection and measurement of the dependant variable
4. Selection and assignment of test units
5. Control over extraneous variables
1. Manipulation of the independent variable (s)
Independent variables: The variable that can be manipulated to be whatsoever the
experiments wishes. Its value may be changed or altered independently of any other variable.
2. Experimental treatments and groups
Experimental treatments: An alternative manipulation of the independent variable being
investigated
Experimental group: The group of subjects exposed to an experimental treatment
Control Group: A group of subjects who are exposed to the control condition in an
experiment-that is they are subjects not exposed to the experimental treatment. By holding
conditions constant in the control group, the researcher controls for potential sources of error
in the experiment.
3. Selection and measurement of the dependant variable
o The dependant variable is so named because its value is expected to be dependent on the
experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable.
o The dependant variable is the criterion or standard by w/h the results are judged. It is
assumed that changes in the dependant variable are a consequence of changes in the
independent variable.
Examples

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 o Introducing a new pink-grape fruit tea mix
Dependent variable- sales volume
o Evaluating d/nt forms of training programs
Dependant variable- turnover, absenteeism, morale
o A company to introduce a new product
Dependent variables- brand awareness, trial purchase, repeat purchase
4. Selection and assignment of test units
o Test units are the subjects or entities whose responses to the experimental treatment are
measured or observed. Individuals, organizational units, sales territories or other entities
may be the test units.
Randomization: - a procedure in which the assignment of subjects and treatments of
groups is based on chance.
Randomization assures the researcher

o The repetition of the experiment under the same conditions

o To assume that the groups are identical with respect to all variables except for the
experimental treatment.

Random assignment of subjects to the various experimental groups is the most common
technique used to prevent test units from differing each other on key variables; it assumes
that all characteristics of these subjects have been similarly randomized.
Matching
If the experimenter believes that certain extraneous variables may affect the dependant
variable, he/she can make sure that the subjects in each group are matched on these CXS.
Matching: - Is a procedure for the assignment of subjects to groups, it ensures each group of
respondents is matched on the basis of pertinent CXS. Although matching assures that the
subjects in each group are similar on the matched characteristics, the researcher can never be
sure that subjects have been matched on all of the characteristics that could be important to
the experiment.

5. Control over extraneous variables

A number of extraneous variables may affect the dependant variables, these by distorting the
experiment. Because an experimenter does not want extraneous variables to affect the results
of an experiment, such variables must be controlled or eliminated.

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Demand CXS
Refers to experimental design procedures that unintentionally give hints to subjects about the
experimenter’s hypothesis

Experimenter bias- An effect on an experimenter’s results caused by the experimenter’s

presence, actions or comments
Guinea Pig effect: an effect on the results of the experiment caused by subjects changing their
normal behavior or attitudes in order to cooperate with an experimenter.
Control Mechanisms

Constancy of conditions: Procedure in which subjects in experimental groups are exposed to

situations identical except for different conditions of the independent variable.
Counter balancing: A technique to reduce error caused by order of presentation by varying
the order of experimental treatments for different groups.
Blinding: A technique used to control subjects’ knowledge of whether or not they have given
a particular experimental treatment.
Double blind: A technique in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows which
are the experimental and w/h are the controlled conditions.
Random assignment- an attempt to control extraneous variables caused by chance.
3.3.2 Survey Research Strategy

Survey studies ask large numbers of people questions about their behaviours, attitudes, and
opinions. Some surveys merely describe what people say they think and do. Other survey
studies attempt to find relationships between the characteristics of the respondents and their
reported behaviours and opinions. For example, a survey could examine whether there is a
relationship between gender and people’s attitudes about some social issue. When surveys are
conducted to determine relationships, as for this second purpose, they are referred to as
correlation studies.

- Survey is defined as a method of gathering primary data based on communication,

either verbal or written means, with a representative sample of individual.
- Survey investigations attempt to describe what is happening or to learn the reasons for
a particular business activity. Most survey research is therefore descriptive research.

The principal advantage of survey studies is that they provide information on large groups of
people, with very little effort, and in a cost effective manner. Surveys allow researchers to

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assess a wider variety of behaviours and other phenomena than can be studied in a typical
naturalistic observation study.
Errors in survey research
The two major sources of survey error are random sampling error and systematic error.

Random sampling error

Most surveys try to portray a representative cross section of a particular target population.
Even with technically proper random probability samples, statistical errors will occur because
of chance variation in the elements selected for the sample. Unless the sample size is
increased, these statistical problems are unavoidable.

Systematic error/non sampling errors

Results from some imperfect aspect of the research design or from a mistake in the execution
of the research .Includes all sources of errors other than introduced by the random sampling
procedure
The many sources of error that in some way systematically influence answers can be
classified under two general categories: respondent error and administrative error.
A. Respondent Error
Surveys are based on asking people for answers. If respondents cooperate and give truthful
answers, a survey will likely accomplish its goal. Two problems that arise if these two
conditions are not met are non response error and response bias.

a) Non-response error: The statistical difference between a survey that includes only
those who responded and a perfect survey that would also include those who failed to
respond.

To utilize results a researcher must be sure that those who did respond to the questionnaire
were representative of those who did not.

This problem is especially acute in mail and internet surveys but is also exists in
telephone and face-to-face interviews.

Non respondents: People who are not contacted or who refuse to cooperate
No contact: A potential respondent who is not at home or who is otherwise in accessible on
the first and second attempts to contact
Refusals: Occurs when people are unwilling to participate in the research

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 b) Response Bias: A response bias occurs when respondents tend to answer in a certain
direction, i.e., when they consciously or unconsciously misrepresent the truth.

There are five specific categories of response bias

Acquiescence bias: A category of response bias in w/c individuals have a tendency to agree
with all questions or to indicate of positive connotation to a new idea. They are “yea sayers” .
It is particularly prominent in research on new products, new programs or ideas previously
unfamiliar to the respondents. Disagree with all questions or to indicate a negative
connotation to a new idea.
Extremity Bias a tendency to use extremes when responding to question others; others avoid
extreme positions and tend to respond neutrally.
Interviewer Bias: Bias in the responses of subjects due to the influence of the interviewer
Dressing, age, gender, tone of voice, facial expressions
Auspices Bias: Bias in responses subjects caused by their being influenced by the
organization conducting the study
Social desirability Bias: Bias in the responses of subjects caused by their desire, either
conscious or unconscious to gain prestige or to appear in a different role. Example
Recreation
- Visiting tourist sites and attractions
- Education is overstated
- Charity contributions
- “respectable” answers given in order to gain prestige
- Attempt to create a favorable impression or “save face”
B. Administrative Errors
Result of improper administration or execution of the research task
Such errors can be caused by carelessness, confusion, neglect, omission or some other
blunder. Four types of administrative errors are data processing error, sample selection error,
interviewer error and interviewer cheating.

Data Processing error: A category of administrative error that occurs because of in correct
data entry, incorrect computer programming and other errors during data analysis. data
processing errors can be minimized by establishing careful procedure for verifying each step
in the data processing stage.

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Sample selection error: It is a systematic error that because of an error in either the sample
design or execution of the sampling procedure results in an unrepresentative sample.
Interviewer error Interviewer error is introduced when interviewers record answers and
check the wrong response. Interviewers are not able to write fast enough to record answers
verbalism. Interviewers misreport answers
Interviewer cheating: Occurs when an interviewer falsifies entire questionnaire or fills in
the answers to certain questions.
Classifying survey research Methods
Surveys may be classified according to the method of communication, the degree of structure
and amount of disguise in a questionnaire and the time frame in w/c the data are collected.
Classification by the method of communication

- Questionnaire
o Self administered questionnaire
o Mail questionnaire
o Electronic questionnaire
- Interview
o Personal interview
o Telephone interview
o Interview schedule
o In-depth interview
o Focused group discussions
Structured and Disguised questions
In designing a questionnaire (or an interview schedule), the researcher must decide how much
structure or standardization is needed.
A structured question- limits the number of responses available
Unstructured questions- do not restrict the answers the respond is allowed. Example:- what
do you think are the two most important problems facing your organization?
Disguised questions: are indirect type of question that assumes that the purpose of the study
must be hidden from the respondents.
Undisguised question -Direct question

Questionnaires can be categorized by their degree of structure and degree of disguise.

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 Disguise Un disguise
Structure Structured disguise Structure un disguised
Unstructured Unstructured disguise Structured un disguised
Limitations of this classification

- Degree of structure and degree of disguise vary; they are not clear cut strategies
- Most surveys are by brids , asking both structured and unstructured questions

Recognition of the degree of structure and disguise to meet survey objectives will help in the
selection of the appropriate communication medium for conducting the survey.
3.3.3. Case Research Strategy
Definition and Importance

Robson (2002:178) defines case study as ‘a strategy for doing research which involves an
empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context
using multiple sources of evidence’. Yin (2003) also highlights the importance of context,
adding that, within a case study, the boundaries between the phenomenon being studied and
the context within which it is being studied are not clearly evident. This is the complete
opposite of the experimental strategy we outlined earlier, where the research is undertaken
within a highly controlled context. It also differs from the survey strategy where, although the
research is undertaken in context, the ability to explore and understand this context is limited
by the number of variables for which data can be collected.

The case study strategy also has considerable ability to generate answers to the question
‘why?’ as well as the ‘what?’ and ‘how?’ questions, although ‘what?’ and ‘how?’ questions
tend to be more the concern of the survey strategy. For this reason the case study strategy is
most often used in explanatory and exploratory research.

Triangulation: Triangulation refers to the use of different data collection techniques within
one study in order to ensure that the data are telling you what you think they are telling you.
The data collection techniques employed may be various and are likely to be used in
combination. They may include, for example, interviews, observation, and documentary
analysis and questionnaires. Consequently, if you are using a case study strategy you are
likely to need to use and triangulate multiple sources of data.

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Types of case studies
Yin (2003) distinguishes between four case study strategies based upon two discrete
dimensions:
o single case v. multiple case;
o Holistic case v. embedded case.
1. A single case is often used where it represents a critical case or, alternatively, an extreme
or unique case. Conversely, a single case may be selected because it is typical or because
it provides you with an opportunity to observe and analyse a phenomenon that few have
considered before. Inevitably, an important aspect of using a single case is defining the
actual case. Where you choose to use a single case study, you will need to have a strong
justification for this choice.
2. A case study strategy can also incorporate multiple cases, that is, more than one case. The
rationale for using multiple cases focuses upon the need to establish whether the findings
of the first case occur in other cases and, as a consequence, the need to generalise from
these findings. For this reason Yin (2003) argues that multiple case studies may be
preferable to a single case study and that.
3. Holistic case study: you may well have chosen to use an organisation by which you have
been employed or are currently employed as your case. If your research is concerned only
with the organisation as a whole then you are treating the organisation as a holistic case
study.
4. Embedded case: when you are researching and are concerned with a single organisation
as a whole, if you wish to examine also a number of logical sub-units within the
organisation, perhaps departments or work groups, then your case will inevitably involve
more than one unit of analysis. Whatever way you select these units, this would be called
an embedded case study

3.3.4 Action research Strategy

Lewin first used the term action research in 1946. It has been interpreted subsequently by
management researchers in a variety of ways, but there are four common themes within the
literature.
1. The first focuses upon and emphasises the purpose of the research: research in action
rather than research about action (Coghlan and Brannick 2005) so that, for example, the
research is concerned with the resolution of organisational issues such as the implications of
change together with those who experience the issues directly.
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2. The second relates to the involvement of practitioners in the research and, in particular, a
collaborative democratic partnership between practitioners and researchers, be they
academics, other practitioners or internal or external consultants.
3. The third theme emphasises the iterative nature of the process of diagnosing, planning,
taking action and evaluating. The action research spiral commences within a specific
context and with a clear purpose. Diagnosis sometimes referred to as fact finding and
analysis, is undertaken to enable action planning and a decision about the actions to be
taken. These are then taken and the actions evaluated (cycle 1). Subsequent cycles involve
further diagnosis, taking into account previous evaluations, planning further actions, taking
these actions and evaluating.
4. The final theme suggests that action research should have implications beyond the
immediate project; in other words, it must be clear that the results could inform other
contexts.
3.3.5. Grounded Theory
Grounded theory represents an inductive investigation in which the researcher poses
questions about information provided by respondents or taken from historical records. The
researcher asks the questions to him or herself and repeatedly questions the responses to
derive deeper explanations. Grounded theory is particularly applicable in highly dynamic
situations involving rapid and significant change. Two key questions asked by the grounded
theory researcher are “What is happening here?” and “How is it different?” The
distinguishing characteristic of grounded theory is that it does not begin with a theory but
instead extracts one from whatever emerges from an area of inquiry.

A grounded theory strategy is particularly helpful for research to predict and explain
behaviour, the emphasis being upon developing and building theory. As much of business
and management is about people’s behaviours, for example consumers’ or employees’, a
grounded theory strategy can be used to explore a wide range of business and management
issues.
Example: Consider a company that approaches a researcher to study whether or not its sales
force is as effective as it has been over the past five years. The researcher uses grounded
theory to discover a potential explanation. A theory is inductively developed based on text
analysis of dozens of sales meetings that had been recorded over the previous five years. By
questioning the events discussed in the sales interviews and analyzing differences in the

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situations that may have led to the discussion, the researcher is able to develop a theory. The
theory suggests that with an increasing reliance on e-mail and other technological devices for
communication, the salespeople do not communicate with each other informally as much as
they did five years previously. As a result, the salespeople had failed to bond into a close-knit
“community.”

3.3.6. Ethnography Research Strategy

Ethnography represents ways of studying cultures through methods that involve becoming
highly active within that culture. The purpose is to describe and explain the social world the
research subjects inhabit in the way in which they would describe and explain it. This is
obviously a research strategy that is very time consuming and takes place over an extended
time period as the researcher needs to immerse her or himself in the social world being
researched as completely as possible.

In adopting an ethnographic strategy, you will be researching the phenomenon within the
context in which it occurs and, in addition, not using data collection techniques that
oversimplify the complexities of everyday life. Given this, it is not surprising that most
ethnographic strategies involve extended participant observation

Ethnographic study can be particularly useful when a certain culture is comprised of

individuals who cannot or will not verbalize their thoughts and feelings. For instance,
ethnography has advantages for discovering insights among children since it does not rely
largely on their answers to questions. Instead, the researcher can simply become part of the
environment, allow the children to do what they do naturally, and record their behaviour.
3.3.7 Phenomenology Research Strategy
Phenomenology represents a philosophical approach to studying human experiences based
on the idea that human experience itself is inherently subjective and determined by the
context in which people live. The phenomenological researcher focuses on how a person’s
behaviour is shaped by the relationship he or she has with the physical environment, objects,
people, and situations. Phenomenological inquiry seeks to describe, reflect upon, and
interpret experiences.

Researchers with a phenomenological orientation rely largely on conversational interview

tools. When conversational interviews are face to face, they are recorded either with video or
audiotape and then interpreted by the researcher. The phenomenological interviewer is

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careful to avoid asking direct questions when at all possible. Instead, the research respondent
is asked to tell a story about some experience. In addition, the researcher must do everything
possible to make sure a respondent is comfortable telling his or her story. One way to
accomplish this is to become a member of the group. Another way may be to avoid having
the person use his or her real name. This might be particularly necessary in studying
potentially sensitive topics such as smoking, drug usage, shoplifting, or employee theft.

3.3.8 Archival research

The final strategy we wish to consider, archival research, makes use of administrative
records and documents as the principal source of data. Although the term archival has
historical connotations, it can refer to recent as well as historical documents.

An archival research strategy allows research questions which focus upon the past and
changes over time to be answered, be they exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.
However, your ability to answer such questions will inevitably be constrained by the nature
of the administrative records and documents.
3.5. Time Horizon
An important question to be asked in planning your research is ‘Do I want my research to be
a “snapshot” taken at a particular time or do I want it to be more akin to a diary or a series of
snapshots and be a representation of events over a given period?’ (As always, of course, the
answer should be ‘It depends on the research question.’) The ‘snapshot’ time horizon is what
we call here cross-sectional while the ‘diary’ perspective we call longitudinal.

We should emphasise here that these time horizons to research design are independent of
which research strategy you are pursuing or your choice of method. So, for example, you may
be studying the change in manufacturing processes in one company over a period of a year.
This would be a longitudinal case study.

1. Cross-sectional studies
o the study of a particular phenomenon (or phenomena) at a particular time
o most research projects undertaken for academic courses
o Cross-sectional studies often employ the survey strategy
o Most field studies are cross sectional studies in nature
Example 1: data were collected from stock brockers between April and June of last year to
study their concerns in a turbulent stock market. Data with respect to this particular research

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had not been collected before, nor will they be collected again from them for this research.

Example 2: a drug company desirous of investing in research for a new obesity (reduction)
pill conducted a survey among obese people to see how many of them would be interested in
trying the new bill.
The purpose of both of the studies in the two examples was to collect data that would
be pertinent to find the answer to a research question. Data collection at one point in
time was sufficient. Both were cross-sectional designs.

2. Longitudinal studies
o In longitudinal studies the basic question is ‘Has there been any change over a period of
time?’
o the ‘diary’ perspective
o Take more and time effort and cost more than cross-sectional studies.
o Help to identify cause-and-effect relationships
o Experimental designs are invariably longitudinal studies since data are collected both
before and after the manipulation.
o Field studies can be also longitudinal. For example, a study of the comparison data
pertaining to the reactions of managers in a company toward working women now and
10 years later will be a longitudinal study.
o Necessary if a manager wants to keep track of certain factors over a period of time, to
detect possible casual connections.
Example 1: UPS experienced a shut down for 15 days during the teamsters’ walkout and
their clients shifted their business to other carriers such as FedEx and the U.S. postal service.
After a number of the strike, UPS tried to woo their customer back through several strategies
and collected data month after month to see what progress they were making in this regard.

Here, data were collected every month to assess whether UPS had regained the business
volume. Since data were collected at various points in time to answer the same research
question (have we gained lost background?), the study is a longitudinal one.
Example 2: A marketing manager is interested in tracing the pattern of sales of a particular
product in four different regions of the country on a quarterly basis for the next 2 years. Since
data are collected several times to answer the same issues (tracing pattern of sales), the study
falls under the longitudinal category.

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