BASIC PRINCIPLE OF GENETICS AND HEREDITARY

OUTLINE:

REPRODUCTION

-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

-ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

-ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

CEL DIVISION

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

MENDELIAN GENETICS

SHORT HISTORY ON GREGOR MENDEL

DEFINITIONS OF SOME GENETIC TERMS

MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

DIHYBRID INHERITANCE

MOLECULAR GENETICS

STRUCTURE OF THE DNA

DNA REPLICATION

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

TRANSFORMATION

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REPRODUCTION

There are different school of thought or theories on the origin of life on earth. This

include: theory of eternity, theory of special creation, theory of catastrophism and theory

of spontaneous generation. Imagine how the life organisms are maintained from one

generation to another because the life of each individual organisms is limited. Human

beings can live up to (70-80), some few live beyond that butt life is always present on the

earth surface. Plants that you see this season are replaced by some younger ones during

the next season. All living organisms have developed mechanisms to maintain continuity

of their life. They have achieved this through the process reproduction; which is the

ability to give birth to young ones. There are two main types of reproduction: sexual and

asexual reproduction.

 Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves the fusion of male and

female gametes. Sexual reproduction allow genetic variability and makes

organism adapt better to their environment

 Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of

gametes but allow an individual organism to reproduce a genetic replica of itself.

This type of reproduction does not allow genetic variability.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Vegetative reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction that involves the generation

of a new organism from a vegetative part which could be the stem, leaf, mycelium or

specialized propagules like adventitious buds, asexual spores, akinete, homogonia,

corms, bulbs and suckers. It may also involve certain human control artificial

processes such as layering, grafting, budding and rooting of cuttings of stems and

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 leaves. In any of these methods a portion gets detached from the body of the parent

plant which starts a new life in a suitable condition.

1. Budding:- this occurs in yeast, when one or more tiny outgrowths appear on one or

more sides of the vegetative cell immersed in a sugar solution, which later get detached

from the parent and start to live an independent life. Budding often occur continuously so

that finally one more chains, sometimes sub-chains, of cells are formed. The individual

cells of the chain separate from one another and form new yeast plants.

2 Gemmae:- This form of asexual vegetative reproduction occur in some mosses and

liverworts (Marchantia) where special bodies known as gemmae develop on the leaf

branch or thallus for the purpose of vegetative propagation

3 Leaf:- This occur in certain plants such as ferns (Adiantum caudatum, A. Lunulatum

and Polypodium flagelliferum) which propagates using their leaf tips. Also Bryophylum

pinnatum also propagates using its leaf margins once they touch the ground. As the leaf

touches the ground the tip/margin strikes roots and form a bud. The bud grows in to a

new plant. Though ferns reproduce vegetatively normally by their rhizomes.

4 Underground stems:- many flowering plants reproduce by means of their Rhizome

(ginger), the tuber (potato) bulb (egg onion), in which new buds are produced on these

stems which gradually grow into a new plant.

5 Sub-aerial stems- The runner, the stolon, the offset and the suckers are sued by some

plant such as Colocasia species, water lettuce (Pistia) Chrysanthemum species, and Musa

species for vegetative propagation.

6.Bulbils in garlic (Allium sativum) some of the lower flowers of the inflorescence

become modified into small multicellular bodies known as bulbils, which fall into the

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ground and grow as a new plant. Sometimes they grow to some extent on the parent plant

before falling to the ground. Bulbils are also produce in the leaf axil of wild yam.

Dioscorea bulbifera and Lilium bulbiferum. In pineapple (Ananas), the inflorescence

generally ends in a reproductive bud, but in some varieties of pineapple the inflorescence

becomes surrounded at the base by a whorl of such buds and also crowned by a few of

them.

Bulbils in Dioscorea bubilfera

7. Fission:- This involves the parents cell splitting into two new cells. This new cell

contain all the genetic materials of the parent cell and later grow to become independent

like the parent. Most unicellular algae, fungi and bacteria reproduce by fission.

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8. Spore formation:- Spores are asexual reproductive units which grow independently

without fusing with another unit which are always unicellular and microscopic in nature.

The spores may be motile or non-motile. Ciliate motile spores are called zoospores. They

are produced by many algae and fungi, they swim about in water for some time with the

help of their cilia and then develop into independent individuals. Zoospores are normally

formed in large numbers as in Ulothtrix. In vaucheria the whole mass of protoplasm

escapes from the parent cell as a single large multiciliate and multinucliatic zoospores

which swim in water for some time, comes to rest and germinate into a new vaucheria

filament.

Non-ciliate, non-motile spores:-This types of spores occur mostly among terrestrial

fungi. This types of spores are normally light, dry, tough coated easily disperse by wind.

True spores are always produce by a sporophyte. The sporangium of moss plant

reproduces asexually by spores also ferns such as Lycopodium and Equisetum bears

spores and reproduce asexually through them. These plants are homosporous i.e they

produce only one kind of spores. The more advanced types of plants such as Selaginella

and flowering plants (gymnosperms and Angiosperms) are heterosporous i.e. they

produce two kinds of spores, microspores (male) and megaspores (female)

Artificial methods of vegetative propagation

These methods could be through cuttings, layering, grafting, Gootee etc. In most of these

methods, a portion of the parent plant is separated by special methods. It is important to

note that in flowering plants the methods of vegetative propagation are diverse. The

offspring look like the parent plant in all respects so gardeners often use these methods

for quick multiplication of flowers in their gardens.

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(1) Cuttings:- This involves growing new plants from stem-cuttings separated from

the parent plant. Many plants such as Cassava, Sugar cane, Moringa, Coleus, D etc can

be propagated from their stem cuttings. Stem cuttings of these plants when in moist soil

produce roots at the base and develop adventitious buds which allow the plant to grow.

Also the root-cuttings are used to grow some plants such as lemon. The root-cutting when

in must soil grow to produce roots and shoots.

(2) Layering:- This involves bending down the branches of the plant into the soil

after making a ring of bark 2.5-5cm. This part is covered or pushed into soft soil and

making the upper part free. The portion is cut from the parents plant and grown

separately in the soil usually within 2-4months. Lemon, Grape-vine, Ixora and Rose can

easily be propagated through this method.

3 Grafting:- This involves inserting the small branch of a plant into the stem of a

rooted plant of the same or related species in a way to bring about an organic union

(fusion of tissues) between the two and make them to grow as one. The branch that is

inserted is known as the scion or graft and the plant on which it is grown which is rooted

to the soil is the stock. The scion grows retaining all its qualities while the stock which

may be inferior quality in terms of fruit production but physically sturdy supports it by

providing water and food materials. Grafting allows the production of desired

characteristics of the scion as it is in the parent. It is important to note that grafts are

normally use for the purpose of propagation of certain fruit and ornamental shrubs and

trees. Some common grafting methods includes: Inarching, Bud grafting, Tongue

grafting, wedge grafting, Crown grafting.

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Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction in angiosperms involves the fusion of a male gamete or sperm with a

female gametes or egg in the ovule of a flower. The fusion process usually results in the

formation of a fertilized egg or zygote which develops in to the embryo of the seed. The

seed on germination and development, produces a new plant. The processes involved in

sexual reproduction in angiosperms occur in the form of cycle between the gametophyte (

haploid; n) phase and diploid (sporophyte; 2n) phase in any particular sexually

reproducing organism. The cyclic alternation (changes) between the saprophytic and

gametophyte generation mediated by production of gamete (meiosis) which unite to

produce the zygote (fertilization) is known as alternation of generation. Among the seed

plants the gametophyte generation has become very greatly reduced to become

microscopic which is contained within the reproductive structure of the saprophytic

generation 2n. The conspicuous flowering plant body is the saprophytic generation (2n).

In most lower plants (Algae, fungi) the haploid phase is the dominant generation while

there is a gradual development of the diploid generation in plant advancement but totally

dominant in the flowering plants.

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DIAGRAM ON ALTERNATION OF GENERATION