DOUBLE
IMPLICATION/BICONDITIONAL
Lecture # 04
Truth table for EXCLUSIVE OR
(p q) ~ (p q)
p q p q p q ~ (pq) (p q) ~ (p q)
T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F T F
EXCLUSIVE OR
In English when we use OR in this sense, when we say p or q.
It means either p is true or q is true or possibly both are true.
E.g.: Give me a book or bag. It means either give me a book
or bag or possibly give him both bag and book.
In the above statement, we are using OR in Inclusive sense.
E.g.: Tomorrow at 9’o clock, I will be in Lahore or Islamabad.
In the above statement, we are using OR in Exclusive sense.
Exclusive OR
When OR is used in exclusive sense, the statement “p or
q” means “p or q but not both”
or
“p or q and not p and q” which translates into symbols
as:
“p or q and not p and q” which translates into symbols
as:
(p q) ~ (p q)
Symbols for EXCLUSIVE OR
pq
or
p XOR q
Note:
Basically
p q ≡ (p q) ~ (p q)
Examples of Implication
p = “Aslam lives in Multan”
q = “Aslam lives in Pakistan”
“if p then q”
“p implies q”
“if p, q”
“p only if q”
“p is sufficient for q”
Note:
IMPLICATION is logically equivalent to its
CONTROPOSITIVE.
IMPLLICATION and its CONVERSE they are not
equivalent to each other logically.
Implication’s INVERSE and CONVERSE are logically
equivalent to each other.
IMPLICATION and its CONTROPOSITIVE are equivalent
to each other.
Examples:
If you work hard you get good grades.
w = “You work hard”
g = “You get good grades”
w g = If w then g
= “If you work hard then you get good grades”.
Converse:True
g w = If g then w
= g only if w
= “You get good grades only if you work hard.”
If we sum up the implication (w g) and its converse
(g w) we get
“You get good grades if and only if you work hard.”
By summing up we get a new connective and we called
this new connective BICONDITIONAL.
Bi-Conditional Connective
If p and q are statement variables, the biconditional of p
and q is
“p if, and only if, q” and is denoted p q.
if and only if abbreviated iff.
TRUTH TABLE FOR
pq
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
EXAMPLES:
“1 + 1 = 3 if and only if earth is flat.”
TRUE
“Sky is blue iff 1 = 0”
FALSE
“Milk is white iff birds lay eggs.”
TRUE
“33 is divisible by 4 if and only if horse has four
legs.”
FALSE
Note:
Biconditional is logically equivalent to conjunction of two
implications:
p q (p q) (q p)
HOMEWORK
p q (p q) (q p)
REPHRASING BICONDITIONAL:
p q is also expressed as:
“p is necessary and sufficient for q”
“if p then q, and conversely”
“p is equivalent to q”
Note:
p q and q p are EQUIVALENT.
p iff q and q iff p are EQUIVALENT.
REPHARASING ENGLISH SENTENCES IN
BICONDITIONAL CONECTIVE.
If it is hot outside you buy an ice cream cone, and
if you buy an ice cream cone it is hot outside.
You buy an ice cream cone if and only if it is hot outside.
For you to win the contest it is necessary and
sufficient that you have the only winning ticket.
You win the contest if and only if you have the only
winning ticket.
If you read the news paper every day, you will be
informed and conversely.
You will be informed if and only if you read the newspaper
every day.
It rains if it is a weekend day, and it is a weekend day if
it rains.
It rains if and only if it is a weekend day.
This number is divisible by 6 precisely when it is
divisible by both 2 and 3.
This number is divisible by 6 if and only if it is divisible by both
2 and 3.
TRUTH TABLE FOR (p q) (~ q ~ p)
TRUTH TABLE FOR (p q) (~ q ~ p)
p q p q ~q ~p ~ q ~ p (p q) (~ q ~ p)
T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T
Note:
The result is TAUTOLOGY, It means both the expressions involved in statement
form are equivalent.
HOMEWORK
(p q) (r q)
HIERARCY OF CONNECTIVES
Resolve Innermost parenthesis, outmost parenthesis,.
Negation
Conjunction and Disjunction
Implication or Biconditional.
p ~r q r
p ~r q r
In this statement form we have no parenthesis.
Here p ~ r q r means (p (~ r)) (q r)
p q r ~r p ~r qr p ~r q r
T T T F F T F
T T F T T T T
T F T F F T F
T F F T T F F
F T T F F T F
F T F T F T F
F F T F F T F
F F F T F F T
Show that ~p q and p ~q are logically
equivalent
Show that ~p q and p ~q are logically
equivalent
p q ~p ~q ~p q p ~q
T T F F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T F F
same truth values
HOMEWORK
Show that ~(p q) and p q are logically equivalent
Laws of Logic
Commutative Law: pqqp
Implication Laws: p q ~p q
~(p ~q)
Exportation Law: (p q)r p (q r)
Equivalence: p q (p q) (q p)
Reductio ad absurdum p q (p ~q) c
APPLICATION:
Rewrite the statement forms without using the
symbols or
1. p~qr 2. (pr)(q r)
Solution:
p~q r (p ~q)r order of operations
~(p~q) r implication law
HOMEWORK
2. (pr)(q r) p q ~p q
~(p ~q)
HOMEWORK
Rewrite the statement form ~p q r ~q
to a logically equivalent form that uses only
~ and .
HOMEWORK
Rewrite the statement form ~p q r ~q to a
logically equivalent form that uses only ~ and .
SOLUTION
Show that ~(p q) p is a tautology
without using truth tables.
SOLUTION
