LAWS OF LOGIC
Lecture # 03
Applying Laws of Logic
Using laws of logic simplify the statement
form.
p [~(~p q)]
Solution:
p [~(~p) (~q)] DeMorgan’s Law
p [p(~q)] Double Negative Law
[p p](~q) Associative Law for
p (~q) Indempotent Law
This is the simplified statement form.
EXAMPLE
Using Laws of Logic, verify the logical
equivalence.
~ (~ p q) (p q) p
Solution:
(~(~p) ~q) (p q) DeMorgan’s Law
(p ~q) (p q) Double Negative Law
p (~q q) Distributive Law in reverse
pc Negation Law
p Identity Law
EXERCISES
Show that ~ ( p (~ p q)) and ~ p ~ q are
logically equivalent.
Simplify ~ (~ (p q) ~ q) )
SIMPLIFYING A STATEMENT:
“You will get an A if you are hardworking and
the sun shines, or you are hardworking and it
rains.”
Solution:
Let
p = “You are hardworking’
q = “The sun shines”
r = “It rains”
The condition is then (p q) (p r)
(p q) (p r)
p (q r) Distributive law in reverse
Putting p (q r) back into English, we can
rephrase the given sentence as
“You will get an A if you are hardworking
and the sun shines or it rains.”
EXERCISE:
Use Logical Equivalence to rewrite each of the following
sentences more simply.
1. It is not true that I am tired and you are smart.
{I am not tired or you are not smart.}
2. It is not true that I am tired or you are smart.
{I am not tired and you are not smart.}
3. I forgot my pen or my bag and I forgot my pen or
my glasses.
{I forgot my pen or I forgot my bag and glasses.
4. It is raining and I have forgotten my umbrella, or
it is raining and I have forgotten my hat.
{It is raining and I have forgotten my umbrella or my hat.}
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT or
IMPLICATION
Introduction
Consider the statement:
"If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you a
computer."
This statement is made up of two simpler statements:
p: "You earn an A in Math," and
q: "I will buy you a computer."
if p is true, then q is true, or, more simply, if p, then q.
We can also phrase this as p implies q, and we write p
q.
The original statement is then saying:
if p is true, then q is true
Or
more simply, if p, then q.
We can also phrase this as p implies q, and we
write p q.
TRUTH TABLE for p q
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS OR
IMPLICATIONS:
Definition:
If p and q are statement variables, the
conditional of q by p is “If p then q” or “p
implies q” and is denoted p q.
It is false when p is true and q is false;
otherwise it is true.
The arrow " " is the conditional operator
and in p q the statement p is called the
hypothesis
(or antecedent)
q is called the conclusion (or consequent).
PRACTICE WITH CONDITIONAL
STATEMENTS:
Determine the truth value of each of the
following conditional statements:
“If 1 = 1, then 3 = 3.”TRUE
“If 1 = 1, then 2 = 3.”FALSE
“If 1 = 0, then 3 = 3.” TRUE
“If 1 = 2, then 2 = 3.”TRUE
“If 1 = 1, then 1 = 2 and 2 = 3.” FALSE
“If 1 = 3 or 1 = 2 then 3 = 3.” TRUE
ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF EXPRESSING
IMPLICATIONS
The implication p q could be expressed in many
alternative ways as:
“if p then q” “not p unless q”
“p implies q” “q follows from p”
“if p, q” “q if p”
“p only if q” “q whenever p”
“p is sufficient for q” “q is necessary for p”
EXERCISE:
Write the following statements in the form “if
p, then q” in English.
a) Your guarantee is good only if you
bought your CD less than 90 days ago.
If your guarantee is good, then you must
have bought your CD less than 90 days ago.
b) To get tenure as a professor, it is
sufficient to be world-famous.
If you are world-famous, then you will get
tenure as a professor.
c) That you get the job implies that you
have the best credentials.
If you get the job, then you have the best
credentials.
d) It is necessary to walk 8 miles to get
to the top of the Peak.
If you get to the top of the peak, then you
must have walked 8 miles.
TRANSLATING ENGLISH SENTENCES TO
SYMBOLS:
Let p and q be propositions:
p = “you get an A on the final exam”
q = “you do every exercise in this book”
r = “you get an A in this class”
Write the following propositions using p, q,
and r and logical connectives.
To get an A in this class it is necessary for you to
get an A on the final.
SOLUTION rp
You do every exercise in this book; You get an A on
the final, implies, you get an A in the class.
SOLUTION p q r
Getting an A on the final and doing every exercise
in this book is sufficient for getting an A in this
class.
SOLUTION p q r
TRANSLATING SYMBOLIC
PROPOSITIONS TO ENGLISH
Let p, q, and r be the propositions:
p = “you have the flu”
q = “you miss the final exam”
r = “you pass the course”
Express the following propositions as an
English sentence.
pq
If you have flu, then you will miss the final
exam.
~q r
If you don’t miss the final exam, you will pass
the course.
~p ~q r
If you neither have flu nor miss the final exam,
then you will pass the course.
HIERARCHY OF OPERATIONS
FOR LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
~ (negation)
(conjunction)
(disjunction)
(conditional)
Construct a truth table for the statement
form (p ~ q) ~ p
p q ~q ~p p ~q (p ~ q)
~p
T T F F T F
T F T F T F
F T F T F T
F F T T T T
Construct a truth table for the statement
form (p q)(~ p r)
p q r pq ~p ~pr (p q) (~ p r)
T T T T F T T
T T F T F T T
T F T F F T F
T F F F F T F
F T T T T T T
F T F T T F F
F F T T T T T
F F F T T F F
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE INVOLVING
IMPLICATION
Use truth table to show p q ~q ~p
p q ~ ~p p q ~q
q ~p
T T F F T T
T F T F F F
F T F T T T
F F T T T T
same truth values
IMPLICATION LAW
p q ~p q
p q pq ~p ~p
q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT
Since p q ~p q therefore
~ (p q) ~ (~ p q)
~ (~ p) (~ q) by De Morgan’s law
p ~ q by the Double Negative law
Thus the negation of “if p then q” is logically
equivalent to “p and not q”.
Note:
Accordingly, the negation of an if-then
statement does not start with the word if.
EXAMPLES
Write negations of each of the following
statements:
If Ali lives in Pakistan then he lives in Lahore.
Ali lives in Pakistan and he does not live in
Lahore.
If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot
get to class.
My car is in the repair shop and I can get to
class.
If x is prime then x is odd or x is 2.
x is prime but x is not odd and x is not 2.
If n is divisible by 6, then n is divisible by 2
and n is divisible by 3.
n is divisible by 6 but n is not divisible by 2 or
by 3.
INVERSE OF A CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT
The inverse of the conditional statement p
q is
~p ~q
A conditional and its inverse are not
equivalent as could be seen from the truth
table. p q p ~p ~q ~p
q ~q
T T T F F T
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F F T T T T
different truth values in rows 2 and 3
WRITING INVERSE
If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If today is not Friday, then 2 + 3 5.
If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
If it does not snow today I will not ski
tomorrow.
If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is not a square then P is not a
rectangle.
If my car is in the repair shop, then I
cannot get to class.
If my car is not in the repair shop, then I
shall get to the class.
CONVERSE OF A CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT
The converse of the conditional statement p
q is
q p
A conditional and its converse are not
equivalent.
p q pq qp
i.e., is not a commutative operator.
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
not the same
WRITING CONVERSE
If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If 2 + 3 = 5, then today is Friday.
If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
I will ski tomorrow only if it snows today.
If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is a rectangle then P is a square.
If my car is in the repair shop, then I
cannot get to class.
If I cannot get to the class, then my car is in
the
repair shop.
CONTRAPOSITIVE OF A CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT
The contrapositive of the conditional
statement p q is ~ q ~ p
A conditional and its contrapositive are
equivalent. Symbolically p q ~q ~p
If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If 2 + 3 5, then today is not Friday.
If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
I will not ski tomorrow only if it does not snow
today.
If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is not a rectangle then P is not a square.
If my car is in the repair shop, then I
cannot get to class.
If I get to the class, then my car is not in the
repair shop.
