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G. Standard deviation (SD) is a measure of the spread of the data around
the mean (The SD is a measure of the reliability of the results, the smaller
the SD, the more reliable the results are)
2
H. Area of a circle = π r
• The error bars:
Ø the standard deviation can be used to draw error bars on a graph
Ø the bars drawn through the tops of the bars are called error bars, we
draw an error bar that extends above the mean and below it.
Ø we can use these error bars to help us decide whether or not there’s a
significant difference between two groups of data or not
Ø If the error bars overlap, then the difference between the two groups is
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non-significant, if they don’t overlap we still can’t be sure that
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difference is significant but at least we know that it is
example:
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if the standard deviation in this example was 0.04, then plot the error bar with
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limits 0.04 above and below the mean on the bar charts drawn as follows:
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J. Magnification
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5. Measurements:
v Measurement of the surface area of the leaf
A. Mount the leaf on a graph paper/grid
B. Draw an outline of the leaf
C. count the number of squared that are filled with more than half
D. Multiply the number of squares times the area of one square
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v Measuring Volume of Liquid:
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A. We can use a measuring cylinder
• Liquid is poured & volume is read from scale upwards
• Curvature upwards and we read from the bottom and exception is
mercury that curvature is upwards
• We must put on a flat surface & eye should be on the level of the surface
of the liquid to avoid Parallax error
B. We can use Burette
• Liquid’s poured into the top & burette is filled up to zero mark on scale
• Liquid is drawn from burette by opening tap at bottom
C. We can use a syringe
D. We can use a beaker (least accurate)
E. The scale used is either milliliter or cubic centimeters
a. ml = cm3
F. 1 ml = 1/1000 L = 0.001 L
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v Measuring Volume of Gas:
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A. By counting the number of bubbles produced per minute
B. By collecting the gas Using a syringe with scale in ml or cm3 and measure
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volume change by how much the plunger is pushed
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v Measuring temperature:
A. We can use bulb thermometer
B. We can use digital thermometer
• The bulb thermometer consists of a tube and a bulb containing liquids as
mercury or any colored alcohol that expands and contracts as
temperature changes
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• Unit of measurement is Degree Celsius oC
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• It’s difficult to observe the temperature using the bulb thermometer, but
instead the digital thermometer gives more accurate results
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Measuring PH:
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A. Universal indicator (less accurate because it’s difficult to match the colors)
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B. PH meter (more accurate)
N.B. to adjust the pH add buffer solution
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v Measuring the dry mass:
• The fresh mass (including the water content) is easy to determine by
weighing the plant.
• Measuring the dry mass (without water) is better than measuring the fresh
mass, because the weight of the plant may be affected by fluctuations in
water uptake/loss and the amount of water varies between organisms
• The dry mass measurements are more difficult & time consuming to obtain
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• We remove the plants from the soil and wash off any loose soil.
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• Blot the plants removing any free surface moisture.
• Dry the plants in an oven (100° C) overnight
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• Let the plants cool in a dry environment (a Ziploc bag will keep moisture
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out) - in a humid environment the plant tissue will take up water. Once the
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plants have cooled weigh them
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• Measuring the dry mass of the plant is destructive and it is unpleasant to
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carry out on animals
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v Measuring length/height:
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A. Using a string and a ruler
• in case you want to measure the length/height of an irregular object, a
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string can be used to measure the irregular dimensions of this object, then
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the length of the string used is stretched over a ruler and measured
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