NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

GEK1521-PHYSICS IN THE LIFE

SCIENCES TERM PAPER
HEAT CONDUCTION

YEAR

NAME : XXXXXXX

MATRIC NO. : XXXXXXX

1. Introduction

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems by virtue of temperature
difference1. In general, heat can be transferred in three different mechanisms. They are conduction,
convection and radiation. However, the topic that we are interested in this paper is only heat conduction.

2. Heat conduction mechanism

Heat conduction occurs within a body or between two bodies in contact2. Conduction occurs due to the
interaction between particles. It only occurs when there is temperature different between regions and the
direction of heat flow is always from the high temperature region to the lower region. In this process, the
energy is transferred from the more energetic particles to the less energetic ones.

2.1 Liquids and gasses

Figure 1. Molecules moving in random motion6.

The molecules are in random motion and they colliding with each other frequently (Fig. 1). The average
translational kinetic energy of gas atoms is,

KEavg= (1)

where m is the mass of the atom, v is the speed of atom, k is the Boltzman constant(1.38 x 10 -23 J/K) and
T is the temperature in Kelvin (K). Based on Eq.(1), we know that the average kinetic energy depends on
the temperature. In other words, higher temperatures are associated with higher molecular energies.
When two molecules with different kinetic energy collide, the one with higher kinetic energy will transfer
part of its energy to the one with lower kinetic energy. Hence, the energy is transferred from the hotter
end to the cooler end.

2.2 Solids
The mechanism in of heat conduction in solids is different as the atoms in solids are held in fixed
position. In solids, the energy is transferred through the vibrating atoms and through the free flow of
electrons.

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 Figure 2. Free electrons in metal7.
In metal, there are many free electrons (Fig. 2). When one end of the material is heated, the electrons at
the hotter end receive thermal energy. The free electrons collide with atoms and part of its kinetic is
transferred to the atoms. The atoms thus vibrate with a larger amplitude and faster speed. The vibrational
energy is transferred to the neighboring atoms and they vibrate with larger amplitude. This will continue
to go on from hotter end to colder end through electron diffusion.

In non metal, most of the heat transfers through the vibrating atoms as there are only a few free electrons.
When one end of rod is heated, the atoms at the hotter end receive thermal energy and vibrate with larger
amplitude and faster speed, the vibrational energy is transferred to the neighboring atom through wave
motion. The neighboring atoms hence vibrate with greater amplitude. This will continue to go on from
hotter end to colder end.

2.3 Example of heat conduction

Heat conduction explains why the exposed end of a metal spoon that immersed in a cup of hot drink gets
hotter and hotter, even though it is not in direct contact with the drink. Furthermore, a cup of hot drink
that is placed in a room eventually will be cooled down to room temperature after some times. The drink
can never get hotter as the heat flow is always flow from the hotter region to the colder region.

3. Rate of heat conduction

The rate equation for heat conduction is known as Fourier’s law. Fourier’s law of heat conduction states
that the rate of heat conduction in a direction is proportional to the temperature gradient in that direction 1.

A
TH TL
x
Figure 3. Rod of conducting material.

Figure 3 shows a rod of conducting material with length x and cross-sectional area A is kept at a
temperature TH at the left and temperature TL at the right.

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Experiments show that the rate of heat flow dQ/dt is proportional to the cross-sectional area, A and the

temperature gradient, .

(2)

where k is the thermal conductivity of the material. The numerical value of k varies from different
material. Table 1 provides the approximate values of thermal conductivity for some common materials.

Table 1: Thermal conductivities3

Material Thermal Conductivity, k (W/m ∙ K)

Air (gas) 0.024
Aluminum 250
Brickwork 0.69
Cement, Portland 0.29
Copper 401
Concrete, light 0.42
Diamond 2300
Glass 1.05
Gold 310
Ice 2.18
Plastic 0.03
Silver 406.0
Steel, carbon 1% 50.2
Water 0.58
Wood 0.12
Wool 0.07

4. Conductor and insulator

Materials with larger k such as copper, silver and gold are good conductors of heat. Generally, it is
materials that have lots of free electron such as metal. This is because energy transfers through free
electrons are more efficient than vibrating atoms. However, from table 1, we can see that the thermal
conductivity of diamond is extremely high and this is due to the highly ordered arrangement of the atoms
(Fig. 4).

.
Figure 4. Arrangement of the atoms in diamond8.

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Materials such as plastic, cement and wood are poor conductor. They have low k values and hence they
can only conduct heat at a much slower rate. An insulator is used to reduce the heat transfer between two
materials and therefore these materials are good insulator.
5. Some phenomena and applications of heat conduction in daily life.
When we touch a copper rod and a wood stick that have a same cross sectional area, we feel that the
copper rod seems to be cooler that the wood stick although they have the same temperature (room
temperature). This is because copper has higher thermal conductivity than wood. The k value of copper is
about 3000 times bigger than wood. From Eq. (2), the rate of heat flow out from our finger to copper rod
will be 3000 times higher than the wood stick! Therefore, we feel that the copper rod is colder.

If we were to cold a tank of boiling water, we should use a metal tank with bigger cross sectional area.
From Eq. (2), the bigger the cross sectional area, the higher the heat flow rate and hence, water will be
cooled faster. Furthermore, to cool the water even faster, we can immerse the water tank into a pool of
water (room temperature). As water has higher thermal conductivity than air, water is able to transfer heat
away from the tank faster.

Figure 5. Frying pan9. Figure 6. Thermos bottle9.

Cooking utensils such as frying pan (Fig. 5) and pot are made from metal. This is because metal is a good
conductor. Hence, heat from the stove can be conducted to the food in the frying pan in a short time. The
wall of frying pan is usually thin so that the temperature gradient is large. And from Eq. (2), the higher
the temperature gradient, the higher the heat flow rate. On the other hand, the handle of the frying pan is
made of good insulator such as plastic or wood which have very low thermal conductivity. This is to
assure that the heat flow rate is very low so that it will not hurt our hands.

For thermos bottle (Fig. 6), the rate of heat flow from the inner part to the surrounding or vice versa must
be kept as low as possible. In general, a thermos bottle has two walls and there is an empty vacuum space
between them. Both of the walls are usually made form materials that have low thermal conductivity.

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Ideally, the vacuum space acts as a very good insulator as it does not contain free electrons and particle
that can transfer the energy form the inner wall to the outer wall. Through this design, the heat flow rate
through heat conduction can be minimized.
In Singapore, when sleeping in a colder day, we use blanket to keep our body warm. Blanket is made by
good insulator to prevent the heat loss from the body. Usually they are made from wool or cotton. Wool
can trap the air which also is a good heat insulator and minimize the rate of heat flow from our body to
surrounding. When sleeping in hotter day without air conditioning or fan, we may apply Fourier’s law to
keep ourselves cooler. We can sleep on a wooden mat or cement floor as they have higher thermal
conductivity than bed. The rate of heat flow out from out body will be higher and we will feel cooler.
Besides, we can sleep in a position such that our body surface that expose to the air or in contact with the
bed is maximize. Compare to the sleeping position as shown in Figure 7 (left side), we will feel colder if
we sleep with the position as shown in Figure 7 (right side). This is due to an increase in surface area will
lead to an increase in the rate of heat flow.

Figure 7. Sleeping position10. Figure 8. Cavity wall11.

In Singapore, most buildings are built with solid wall with brickwork as the main construction material.
Assuming that the outdoor temperature in Singapore is 30°C and the temperature in a room under air-
conditioning is 25°C. The temperature differences between them are 6°C. From Eq. (2), the rate of heat
flow will be low as brickwork has a low k value and the temperature different is small. Hence, this kind
of wall is good enough for us as there will not have significant heat transfer or lost through the wall.
However, this may not be the case in countries that have four seasons. During winter, the outdoor
temperature may drop to below 0°C. Assuming that the outdoor temperature is -10°C and we would like
to keep our room warmed at 25°C. The temperature between them will be 35°C which is seven times
larger than in Singapore. Hence the rate of heat flow will be significant even though the k value of
brickwork is small. To reduce home heat lost in the winter, many houses in those countries are built with
“cavity walls” (Fig. 7). Cavity wall insulation involves filling the gap in between the walls with polymer

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foam. This foam is a type of plastic material which has air trapped inside 10. As the foam and the trapped
air are good insulators with very low k values, the rate of heat flow through the wall is reduced and the
house can stay warmer for longer period.
6. Summary
There are numerous numbers of phenomena that involves heat conduction. Most, if not all of the
household or industrial applications involve heat transfer. In addition, heat transfer phenomena play a
vital role in many environmental problems12. It is related to air and water pollution and it also influences
global climate. Scientists and engineers have been put in a lot of effort to increase heat transfer efficiency
and decrease heat loss. If we manage to understand heat transfer better, we may come out with solutions
that can improve the quality of our live and also environment.

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7. References

1. Y. A. Cengel, Introduction to theomodynamics and Heat Transfer (McGraw-Hill, 1997).

2. H. D. Young, R. A. Freeman, and A. L. Ford, University Physics 12th Edition (Pearson Addison-
Wesley, 2008).

3. The Engineering ToolBox (October 29, 2010); http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-

conductivity-d_429.html

4. H. Wang, Life and Energy conservation (GEK1521/PC1326 Physics In Life Science Lecture
Notes 09_A 2010, Sem 1).

5. Wikipedia (November 5, 2010); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduction_(heat)

6. Quantum Freak (November 13, 2010); http://quantumfreak.com/motion-of-molecules/.

7. J. Wittke, Glossary Mm (November 13, 2010);

http://www4.nau.edu/meteorite/Meteorite/Book-GlossaryM.html.

8. DocDiamond.Com (November 13, 2010);

http://www.docdiamond.com/images/diamond-unit-cell.jpg.

9. Photo dictionary (November 13, 2010); http://www.faqs.org/photo-dict/ .

10. BBC News (November 13, 2010); http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3112170.stm.

11. C. France, Energy transfer (November 13, 2010);

http://www.gcsescience.com/pen14-cavity-walls.htm.

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 12. F. P. Incropera & D.P. DeWit, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer 5th Edition (John Wiley
& Sons, Inc, 2002).

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