MODULE 2

Underground water construction-excavation presents several challenges, especially due to the

interaction with groundwater. Below are some common problems encountered during excavation for
such projects:

1. Groundwater Inflow

 Problem: During excavation, water may seep or flood into the site from the surrounding
groundwater.
 Notes:
o Can delay construction and cause instability in excavation faces.
o Increases the cost of dewatering, pumping, and water management.
o Solutions: Use of dewatering pumps, well points, or cutoff walls to control water
inflow.

2. Soil Instability

 Problem: Saturated soils can lose strength, leading to soil collapse or slips, especially in soft
clay, loose sands, or silty soils.
 Notes:
o Excavated areas may become unstable, requiring temporary support.
o Solutions: Install shoring, sheet piling, or use ground improvement techniques like
grouting or freezing.

3. Increased Pressure on Retaining Structures

 Problem: Excavations near retaining walls or underground structures may cause an increase
in lateral earth and water pressure.
 Notes:
o Groundwater can exert hydrostatic pressure, destabilizing retaining walls.
o Solutions: Install proper drainage behind retaining walls or use pressure-relief
systems.

4. Seepage and Erosion

 Problem: Water seeping through soil layers can lead to erosion, undermining foundations or
weakening excavation slopes.
 Notes:
o Can create voids or washout channels.
o Solutions: Install seepage barriers, filter fabric, or bentonite clay barriers to reduce
erosion.

5. Water Table Fluctuations

 Problem: Seasonal or tidal variations in the water table can complicate excavation and water
control strategies.
 Notes:
o Requires continuous monitoring and adjustment of dewatering systems.
o Solutions: Plan for higher water levels by installing flexible and scalable dewatering
systems.

6. Contaminated Groundwater
  Problem: In urban or industrial areas, groundwater may be polluted with chemicals, oil, or
heavy metals.
 Notes:
o Can pose health and environmental risks.
o Solutions: Implement a remediation strategy, such as treating water before discharge
or isolating contaminated zones.

7. Floatation of Structures

 Problem: If underground structures (e.g., tanks, pipelines) are not properly anchored, they
may float when exposed to high groundwater levels.
 Notes:
o Buoyant forces can lift structures out of the ground.
o Solutions: Use anchoring systems, ballast weights, or increase the mass of the
structure to resist buoyancy.

8. Unforeseen Subsurface Conditions

 Problem: Hitting unexpected hard rock, large boulders, or archaeological finds can slow
down excavation.
 Notes:
o Can lead to redesign or delays.
o Solutions: Conduct thorough geotechnical investigations and adjust construction
methods.

9. Environmental and Regulatory Issues

 Problem: Excavations near water bodies or environmentally sensitive areas may require
permits and environmental monitoring.
 Notes:
o Strict regulations on water management and pollution prevention.
o Solutions: Comply with local regulations, conduct environmental impact assessments,
and use eco-friendly techniques.

10. Flooding from Surface Runoff

 Problem: Heavy rains can cause surface water to accumulate in excavations, complicating
water management.
 Notes:
o Can lead to delays and require additional drainage systems.
o Solutions: Install surface drainage channels or temporary diversion systems.

Underground drilling and blasting are common methods used in underground water
construction projects, especially in tunneling and the excavation of hard rock. These methods are
often employed when the ground is too hard to be excavated by conventional means.

1. Drilling in Underground Water Construction

 Purpose:
o To create boreholes for explosives placement.
o Used for groundwater monitoring, dewatering, or creating access for blasting.
o Often required for geotechnical investigations before excavation.
 Key Considerations:
 o Rock Hardness: Determines the type of drilling equipment to be used (e.g., rotary or
percussive drilling).
o Hole Spacing: Proper spacing of drill holes is crucial for an effective blast pattern.
Too close and it wastes explosives; too far and the rock will not fracture evenly.
o Water Inflow: The presence of water can complicate drilling. If water is seeping into
the borehole, drilling efficiency may be reduced, and water-tight seals might be
needed around the hole.
o Equipment Used:
 Rotary Drills: Suitable for soft to medium-hard rocks.
 Percussion Drills (Jackleg, Jumbo): Used in harder rock formations.
 Drill Bits: Diamond-tipped or carbide-tipped bits for hard rock conditions.
o Alignment and Accuracy: Drilling holes must be aligned precisely to achieve the
desired blast results, especially in controlled environments like tunnels.
 Challenges:
o Drilling Through Aquifers: Can lead to water leakage into the excavation site.
o Stabilization of Boreholes: In softer materials, boreholes may collapse, requiring
casing or stabilizing agents.
o Noise and Vibration: Drilling can cause significant vibration, potentially affecting
nearby structures.
o Tool Wear: Drilling through hard rock leads to rapid wear on drill bits and
equipment, increasing costs.

2. Blasting in Underground Water Construction

 Purpose:
o To fracture and remove rock, allowing further excavation.
o Widely used in tunnels, shafts, or large underground spaces where water
infrastructure is planned.
 Blasting Sequence:
1. Drill Holes: Create a precise pattern of boreholes.
2. Explosive Loading: Insert explosives into boreholes.
3. Detonation: Sequential firing (staggered timing) to control the direction of rock
breakage and minimize vibration.
4. Mucking: Remove the broken rock fragments.
 Key Considerations:
o Explosives Selection: The type of explosives (ANFO, emulsion explosives, etc.)
depends on the type of rock and the presence of water.
o Blast Design: Critical for minimizing vibrations, controlling rock displacement, and
preventing over-break (excessive excavation beyond the design limits).
 Types of Blast Patterns:
 V-Cut Pattern: Used to initiate the break at the center of the blast
area.
 Parallel Hole Pattern: Common for long tunnels and shafts.
 Delay Timing: Delay detonators are used to control the sequence of
explosions and reduce the total vibration in the surrounding ground.
o Water Impact on Blasting:
 Water can reduce the effectiveness of explosives by dampening shock waves.
 Special water-resistant explosives or techniques (e.g., stemming with clay or
water-resistant detonators) are often used when blasting in wet conditions.
o Vibration Control: Care must be taken to minimize vibrations, which could
destabilize surrounding rock or nearby structures, especially in urban environments.
o Ventilation: After blasting, the release of gases (e.g., NOx, CO2) requires proper
ventilation to make the site safe for workers.
 Challenges:
 o Waterlogged Conditions: Presence of groundwater can reduce explosive efficiency
and create safety hazards.
o Rock Fragmentation: Uneven fragmentation may occur, leading to difficulties in
removing material or requiring secondary blasting.
o Overbreak: Blasting beyond intended limits can damage surrounding structures and
increase excavation costs.
o Blasting in Urban Areas: Requires careful monitoring and control of ground
vibrations and air blasts to avoid structural damage to nearby buildings.
o Environmental Impact: Blasting near water sources can affect aquifers and
underground water flow, requiring environmental assessments.

3. Dewatering and Water Control

 Dewatering Systems: Often installed to lower the groundwater table before drilling and
blasting operations begin.
o Techniques include well points, sumps, and drainage systems.
 Waterproof Explosives: Water-resistant explosives are necessary if boreholes are submerged
or water inflow is anticipated.

4. Safety Considerations

 Ground Stability: Blasting can destabilize adjacent rock masses, leading to rockfalls or
collapses.
 Ventilation: Proper air circulation is needed to remove toxic fumes post-blast.
 Explosive Handling: Stringent safety protocols for handling and loading explosives.
 Monitoring Vibrations: Seismographs are often used to measure blast-induced vibrations
and ensure they are within safe limits.

5. Environmental and Regulatory Compliance

 Groundwater Contamination: Blasting near groundwater sources must be carefully

managed to prevent contamination.
 Permit Requirements: Regulatory approval is required, especially in sensitive
environmental zones or near populated areas.
 Noise and Dust Control: Measures must be taken to reduce noise and air pollution.

6. Typical Applications in Underground Water Construction

 Tunneling for Water Supply/Drainage: Drilling and blasting are widely used in tunneling
for underground water pipelines and sewage systems.
 Dams and Reservoirs: Blasting is often required to create underground spillways or tunnels
for water diversion.
 Aquifer Access: Controlled blasting may be needed for aquifer recharge tunnels or water
extraction.

Grouting is a common technique used in both soft and hard soil conditions to improve ground
stability, reduce permeability, and control water ingress. Various grouting methods, such as jet
grouting and chemical grouting, are employed based on the type of soil and the specific engineering
requirements. Below are notes on different grouting methods and their applications:

1. Jet Grouting
Jet grouting involves injecting a high-pressure fluid into the ground to break up and mix soil with a
stabilizing agent (typically cement), creating a solidified soil-cement column.

Application:

 Effective in both soft soils (clays, silts) and hard soils (gravel, rock).
 Used for ground improvement in tunnels, foundations, and excavation support.
 Excellent for water cut-off barriers and stabilizing slope failures.

Method:

1. Drilling: A drill rod with a nozzle at the tip is inserted into the soil to the desired depth.
2. High-Pressure Injection: High-pressure jets of water, air, and grout are injected into the soil
through the nozzle.
o The high-pressure jet breaks up the soil and mixes it with the grout (cement slurry).
o The injection creates a cylindrical column of solidified ground.
3. Rotation and Withdrawal: The drill rod is rotated and slowly withdrawn to form continuous
grout columns.

Types of Jet Grouting:

 Single Fluid: Only grout is injected, suitable for soft soils.

 Double Fluid: Both grout and air are injected, increasing effectiveness in medium soils.
 Triple Fluid: Grout, air, and water are injected, used for hard or dense soils like rock or
compact gravel.

Advantages:

 Can be used in a variety of soil conditions, from loose to dense soils.

 Provides excellent control over groundwater flow by reducing permeability.
 Creates strong, large-diameter soil-cement columns.
 Effective in confined spaces and urban areas where conventional excavation is difficult.

Disadvantages:

 Expensive compared to other grouting methods.

 Requires specialized equipment and highly skilled labor.
 May cause ground heaving due to high pressure.

2. Chemical Grouting

Chemical grouting involves injecting chemical solutions into the ground that react and form a gel or
solid, improving soil strength and reducing permeability.

Application:

 Best suited for soft soils (sand, silt, and loose gravel).
 Commonly used for soil stabilization, sealing leaks in tunnels, and preventing
groundwater seepage.
 Used in environments where precise, low-displacement soil stabilization is needed (e.g.,
around existing structures).
Method:

1. Injection of Chemicals: A liquid chemical grout is injected into the soil via small-diameter
pipes (grout holes).
2. Reaction in Soil: The chemicals react with each other or with the soil particles to form a gel
or solid mass.
o Common chemicals include sodium silicate, urea formaldehyde, or acrylate-based
grouts.
o The solution permeates the soil, filling voids and binding particles together.
3. Solidification: The reaction time can be controlled to allow for proper permeation before
solidification.

Advantages:

 Very effective in sand, silts, and loose soils where other grouting techniques may not
penetrate.
 Minimal disruption to the surrounding soil structure.
 Can be injected into soils with limited permeability.
 Useful for sealing fine cracks and voids in rock or concrete.

Disadvantages:

 Less effective in clay or very dense soils where chemical penetration is limited.
 The chemicals used may be harmful to the environment or pose health risks.
 Chemical grouts may degrade over time, affecting long-term effectiveness.

3. Permeation Grouting

Permeation grouting involves injecting a low-viscosity grout into the soil to fill voids and bind soil
particles together. The grout does not disturb the soil structure but permeates through it.

Application:

 Used in soft to medium-dense soils like sands, silts, and gravels.

 Common for soil stabilization beneath foundations, tunnels, or for creating cut-off walls.
 Effective for waterproofing and improving soil strength around excavation sites.

Method:

1. Injection: Low-viscosity grout (cement-based, chemical, or silicate) is injected under

pressure into the soil through boreholes.
2. Penetration: The grout spreads through the pores and voids of the soil.
3. Setting: The grout hardens, binding soil particles and reducing permeability.

Advantages:

 Causes minimal disturbance to the soil.

 Suitable for improving both permeability and strength of the soil.
 Can be used at varying depths and soil conditions.
Disadvantages:

 Not suitable for dense soils or low-permeability clays, as penetration is limited.

 Requires precise control of grout pressure to avoid soil heaving or fractures.

4. Compaction Grouting

Compaction grouting involves injecting a thick, low-mobility grout into the ground to displace and
compact surrounding soil, improving density and strength.

Application:

 Primarily used in soft soils (loose sands, silts) where densification is needed.
 Commonly employed in settlement control, foundation stabilization, and liquefaction
mitigation.

Method:

1. Injection: A low-mobility grout is injected through a pipe into the soil under high pressure.
2. Displacement: The grout does not permeate the soil but rather compacts the surrounding soil
as it is injected.
3. Formation of Grout Bulbs: The grout forms "bulbs" at the injection points, which densify
the soil.

Advantages:

 Effective in settlement mitigation and for stabilizing loose soils.

 Increases soil density without disturbing surface structures.
 Can be performed from the surface or at depth.

Disadvantages:

 Limited use in dense soils or hard ground conditions.

 Requires careful pressure control to avoid excessive displacement or heaving.

5. Polyurethane Grouting (PU Grouting)

Polyurethane grouting uses polyurethane resin that expands when injected into voids, sealing leaks
and stabilizing soils.

Application:

 Used in soft soils and gravel where sealing voids and preventing water ingress is critical.
 Common in injection waterproofing for tunnels, basements, and retaining walls.

Method:

1. Injection of Resin: Polyurethane resin is injected under low pressure into cracks or voids in
the soil or structure.
2. Expansion: The resin expands as it reacts with moisture, filling gaps and sealing the soil.
3. Hardening: Once hardened, the resin stabilizes the soil and reduces permeability.
Advantages:

 Fast-setting and highly effective for waterproofing.

 Minimal disturbance to the soil.
 Can be used in a wide range of soil conditions, including water-saturated areas.

Disadvantages:

 High cost of materials.

 May not be suitable for large-scale soil stabilization.

 Jet Grouting is versatile, working well in both soft and hard soils, especially in projects
requiring high-strength soil improvement or water cut-off.
 Chemical Grouting is ideal for soft soils like sands and silts, offering excellent permeability
control with minimal disruption.
 Permeation Grouting is effective in medium-dense soils, improving both strength and
permeability with little soil disturbance.
 Compaction Grouting is particularly useful for mitigating settlement in soft soils, while
Polyurethane Grouting provides fast, effective sealing and waterproofing solutions.

Dewatering in Shallow and Deep Excavations involves removing groundwater to ensure stable
and dry working conditions during construction. Different methods are used depending on the depth
and soil type of the excavation.

1. Dewatering in Shallow Excavations

Shallow excavations typically involve depths of up to 5 meters. Dewatering in these cases is usually
simpler and can often be managed with surface-level techniques.

Methods:

 a. Sumps and Pumping:

o Description: Digging shallow pits (sumps) at the lowest point of the excavation
where water collects and is pumped out.
o Application: Best for shallow excavations in cohesive soils like clays or silts.
o Advantages: Simple, cost-effective, and easy to implement.
o Disadvantages: May not work well in permeable soils or for high water inflows.
 b. Wellpoint System:
o Description: A series of small-diameter wells connected to a vacuum pump. The
water is pumped from multiple points, lowering the water table.
o Application: Effective for shallow excavations in sandy or silty soils with moderate
permeability.
o Advantages: Easy to install and cost-effective for shallow depths.
o Disadvantages: Limited to shallow depths (usually up to 6 meters).

2. Dewatering in Deep Excavations

Deep excavations, typically over 5 meters deep, require more advanced dewatering techniques to
handle higher water pressures and larger volumes of water.

Methods:

 a. Deep Wells:
 o Description: Large-diameter wells are drilled at various points around the
excavation. Submersible pumps are installed to draw water from greater depths.
o Application: Used in deep excavations with high groundwater inflow, especially in
permeable soils like sand or gravel.
o Advantages: Effective for high water levels and large-scale projects.
o Disadvantages: Higher installation and operating costs.
 b. Eductor System (Vacuum Wells):
o Description: Similar to the wellpoint system, but uses a vacuum system to draw
water from deeper layers.
o Application: Ideal for deep excavations in low-permeability soils like silts and
clays.
o Advantages: Works well in fine-grained soils where other methods may fail.
o Disadvantages: Expensive to install and maintain.
 c. Horizontal Dewatering:
o Description: Horizontal well screens or pipes are laid at the base of the excavation to
collect and pump out groundwater.
o Application: Used for linear structures like tunnels or pipelines.
o Advantages: Efficient in long, deep excavations and easy to integrate into the
construction process.
o Disadvantages: Requires precise installation and careful design.

 Shallow Excavations typically use simpler methods like sumps and wellpoint systems,
which are easy to install and effective for low water inflows.
 Deep Excavations require more advanced methods like deep wells or eductors, which are
capable of handling large volumes of water and high pressures.

The choice of dewatering method depends on the depth of the excavation, soil type, and
groundwater conditions.

Vacuum Dewatering System

Overview:

 Vacuum dewatering is a process used to remove excess water from freshly laid
concrete surfaces to improve its strength and durability. This method is particularly
useful for large areas of concrete and high-quality finishes.

Components:

1. Filter Pads and Suction Mats: These are placed over the freshly laid concrete
surface.
2. Suction Pump: Connected to the suction mats, it creates a vacuum that removes
water.
3. Water Separator: Separates the extracted water from the air in the vacuum system.
4. Vacuum Pump: Maintains the vacuum pressure necessary to remove water from the
concrete.

Process:

1. After placing and leveling the concrete, the filter pads and suction mats are laid on top
of the surface.
 2. The vacuum pump is turned on, which creates negative pressure to draw water out of
the concrete.
3. Excess water (bleed water) is removed, reducing the water-cement ratio.
4. The process lasts around 15-20 minutes depending on the thickness of the concrete.

Advantages:

 Faster setting and curing times.

 Increased compressive strength due to reduced water-cement ratio.
 Better surface finish with fewer cracks.
 Reduced permeability of the concrete.

Applications:

 Industrial floors, pavements, large slabs, and other large concrete structures where
rapid setting and high strength are required.

Well Point System

Overview:

 A well point system is used for dewatering excavations and controlling groundwater
levels. This method is typically employed in shallow excavations to lower the water
table.

Components:

1. Well Points: Small-diameter pipes with perforations at the bottom that are driven into
the ground.
2. Header Pipe: A horizontal pipe that connects all well points and carries the extracted
water.
3. Centrifugal Pump: Used to create suction and draw water from the well points.
4. Discharge Line: The pipe that carries the pumped-out water away from the
excavation site.

Process:

1. Well points are driven into the ground at regular intervals around the excavation site.
2. These points are connected to a header pipe, which leads to the centrifugal pump.
3. When the pump operates, it creates a vacuum that draws groundwater up through the
well points.
4. The water is then discharged away from the site, lowering the water table and creating
a dry excavation area.

Advantages:

 Effective for shallow depths (up to 5-6 meters).

 Allows for stable and dry excavations.
 Prevents soil instability and water-related issues during excavation.
Applications:

 Foundation excavations for buildings, roads, pipelines.

 Dewatering for underground utilities and other construction projects.
 Suitable for sandy soils and permeable ground conditions.

Both methods are critical for construction projects where managing water is essential for
structural integrity and efficient workflow. The vacuum dewatering system enhances
concrete quality, while the well point system ensures safe and dry excavations in water-
logged areas.