RESTINE NATES B. JUDAYA DR.

ESPERANZA DEL FIERRO

MAED – TEACHING IN BIO PROFESSOR

ADVANCED GENETICS EXAM

ESSAY. Copy the questions and answer Briefly.

1. Explain genetic diversity? What are the mechanisms which makes the genes
diverse? Explain.

 Genetic diversity refers to the variety of genetic information within a

species or population. It includes the differences in DNA sequences,
genes, and alleles (different forms of a gene) that exist among
individuals. This diversity allows populations to adapt to changing
environments, resist diseases, and survive over time. High genetic
diversity is essential for the survival and evolution of species. It is
created through several mechanisms:

 Mutation – Changes in DNA that introduce new traits.

 Genetic Recombination – Exchange of genetic material
during meiosis.
 Independent Assortment – Random distribution of
chromosomes to gametes.
 Gene Flow – Introduction of new genes through migration.
 Sexual Reproduction – Combination of genes from two
parents.
 Natural Selection – Favoring traits that improve survival.
 Genetic Drift – Random changes in gene frequency in small
populations.

2. What are conservation genetics? How are these genes being conserved?
Explain.
 Conservation genetics is the study of preserving genetic diversity within
species to ensure their survival. It focuses on maintaining genetic variation
to promote adaptability and prevent extinction. Conservation is achieved
through in situ methods like protected areas and corridors, ex situ
methods such as seed banks and cryopreservation, captive breeding
programs, and genetic monitoring. Advanced biotechnology tools, such as
 DNA sequencing and gene editing, are also used to preserve genetic
material. These approaches help maintain biodiversity and support
species' long-term survival and adaptability.

3. Define phylogenetics? How important it is in determining evolutionary history of

genetic traits?
 Phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary relationships among
species or groups of organisms. It involves analyzing genetic,
morphological, or behavioral data to construct a "phylogenetic tree" or
"cladogram" that represents the inferred evolutionary history of a group.
The branches of these trees depict the common ancestors and the
divergence of species over time.
Phylogenetics plays a critical role in understanding the evolutionary
history of genetic traits because:
 Tracing Evolutionary Lineages: Phylogenetic analysis helps
identify how species are related to one another and how specific
genetic traits have evolved across different lineages.
 Understanding Trait Evolution: By mapping genetic traits onto
phylogenetic trees, scientists can determine how traits have been
inherited and modified over generations, providing insight into
their adaptive significance.
 Reconstructing Ancestral States: Phylogenetic trees allow
researchers to infer the genetic makeup of common ancestors
and how traits have changed over time, offering a clearer picture
of evolutionary processes.
 Revealing Evolutionary Patterns: The study of genetic similarities
and differences across species enables scientists to understand
mechanisms like natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow in
the development of traits.
 Guiding Conservation Efforts: Phylogenetic information is also
crucial for identifying species that are closely related and might
require similar conservation strategies to preserve genetic
diversity.

4. Differentiate cladistics and phenetics.

 Cladistics: Focuses on the evolutionary relationships and shared ancestry
of organisms. It uses shared derived traits (synapomorphies) to group
organisms into clades.
  Phenetics: Classifies organisms based on overall similarity in traits,
regardless of evolutionary relationships. It does not necessarily reflect
evolutionary history.

5. Why speciation happens?

 Speciation occurs when populations of the same species become isolated
and evolve independently, eventually leading to the formation of new
species. Factors leading to speciation include:
 Geographic Isolation (Allopatric Speciation): Physical barriers
separate populations, preventing gene flow.
 Reproductive Isolation: Differences in mating behavior, timing, or
genetics prevent interbreeding.
 Adaptive Radiation: When species rapidly diversify to fill different
ecological niches.

6. Compare landscape genetics and genomic and transcriptomic studies.

 Landscape Genetics: Combines population genetics with landscape
ecology to understand how geographical and environmental factors
influence genetic variation.

 Genomic Studies: Analyze the complete set of DNAs in an organism to

identify genetic variations and their functions.

 Transcriptomic Studies: Focus on the RNA transcripts in a cell to

understand gene expression and regulation.

7. Define each term and give its importance in the field of genetics:
a) Homology Analysis
 Definition: Homology analysis involves comparing the genetic
sequences of different species or individuals to identify regions that are
similar due to shared ancestry. These similarities can be at the
nucleotide or protein level.
 Importance: This analysis is crucial for understanding evolutionary
relationships, gene functions, and the conservation of genetic traits. It
is often used in identifying homologous genes in model organisms,
which can then be studied to understand human genetics, diseases,
and potential treatments.
 b) Collinearity
 Definition: Collinearity refers to the preserved order of genes or
genomic sequences between two species or within different regions of
the same genome. This means that genes are arranged in the same
relative order in both species or regions.
 Importance: Collinearity helps in understanding the evolutionary
processes that shape genomes. It provides insights into gene
rearrangements, evolutionary conservation, and functional
relationships between genes. It is also used in comparative genomics
to identify conserved pathways and regulatory mechanisms.

c) Synteny
 Definition: Synteny is the conservation of the order of genes along
chromosomes between species. When two or more chromosomes in
different species have the same or similar gene order, they are said to
be "syntenic."
 Importance: Synteny analysis helps in identifying large-scale structural
changes in genomes and can be used to study evolutionary
relationships between species. It is useful for gene mapping,
understanding chromosomal evolution, and studying species-specific
genetic traits or adaptations.

8. What is chromosomal evolution? What are the mechanisms of its evolution? Cite
four examples and explain.
 Chromosomal evolution refers to changes in chromosome structure and
number over time, leading to genetic diversity and the adaptation of
species. This evolution can result from several mechanisms:

 MECHANISMS OF CHROMOSOMAL EVOLUTION

 Mutations: Changes in the DNA sequence can result in variations in
chromosomes.
 Chromosomal Rearrangements: These include inversions,
translocations, deletions, and duplications.
 Polyploidy: An increase in the number of chromosome sets.
 Fusion and Fission: Chromosomes can break and rejoin in new
configurations.
 Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequency can affect
chromosomal composition over generations.
  EXAMPLES OF CHROMOSOMAL EVOLUTION
 Human Chromosome 2: In humans, chromosome 2 resulted from
the fusion of two ancestral ape chromosomes. This fusion is
evident in the presence of vestigial centromeres and telomeres
within the chromosome.
 Polyploidy in Plants: Many plants, such as wheat, have undergone
polyploidy. Wheat is a hexaploid, meaning it has six sets of
chromosomes, which contributes to its genetic diversity and
adaptability.
 Inversions in Drosophila: The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster,
exhibits chromosomal inversions where segments of a
chromosome are reversed. These inversions can lead to
reproductive isolation and speciation.
 Robertsonian Translocations in Animals: This is a common
mechanism in animals, where two acrocentric chromosomes fuse
to form a single metacentric chromosome. It’s observed in many
species, including mice, and can lead to variations in chromosome
number among populations.

9. What is comparative genomics and its applications? Compare the analysis of

coding and non-coding regions.
 Comparative genomics is the study of the similarities and differences
in the genomes of different species. By comparing genetic material
across species, scientists can understand evolutionary relationships,
gene functions, and the genetic basis of diseases.

 APPLICATIONS OF COMPARATIVE GENOMICS

 Evolutionary Biology: It helps trace the evolutionary history
and relationships among species.
 Gene Discovery: Identifying genes conserved across
species can highlight their importance and potential
functions.
 Medical Research: Comparing human genes with those of
model organisms can help identify genetic causes of
diseases.
 Agriculture: It can be used to enhance crop and livestock
breeding by understanding genetic traits.
  ANALYSIS OF CODING VS. NON-CODING REGIONS
 Coding Regions (Exons):
 Definition: Sequences of DNA that are transcribed into
mRNA and translated into proteins.
 Analysis: Focuses on identifying gene functions,
predicting protein structure, and understanding genetic
diseases.
 Importance: Directly involved in the biological functions
of cells and organisms.
 Non-Coding Regions:
 Definition: DNA sequences that do not code for proteins.
This includes introns, regulatory elements, and non-
coding RNAs.
 Analysis: Involves understanding gene regulation,
chromosome structure, and the roles of non-coding
RNAs.
 Importance: Regulate gene expression, influence
genome stability, and play roles in epigenetic
modifications.

10. Why speciation occurs? Give two mechanisms which will lead to its occurrence.
 Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species
arise. It occurs when populations of a species become isolated and evolve
differently over time, leading to the formation of distinct species. There are
several mechanisms that contribute to speciation:

 MECHANISMS OF SPECIATION
  Allopatric Speciation
 Description: This occurs when a population is geographically
divided into isolated groups by physical barriers such as
mountains, rivers, or distance.
 Example: The formation of new species of finches on the
Galápagos Islands due to geographic isolation.

 Sympatric Speciation:
 Description: This occurs within a single geographical area,
often through ecological, behavioral, or genetic differences
that lead to reproductive isolation.
 Example: The evolution of cichlid fish in the same lakes of
Africa, where different niches and behaviors lead to
speciation despite living in the same water bodies.

11. How important is metagenomics? Give two applications.

 Metagenomics is the study of genetic material recovered directly from
environmental samples. It allows scientists to analyze the collective
genomes of microorganisms in a given environment, bypassing the need
to isolate and culture individual species. This approach provides a more
comprehensive understanding of microbial communities, their functions,
and their interactions with the environment.

 APPLICATIONS OF METAGENOMICS
 Environmental Monitoring and Bioremediation:
 Description: Metagenomics is used to assess the diversity
and function of microbial communities in various
environments, such as soil, water, and air. By understanding
these communities, scientists can monitor the health of
ecosystems and detect changes due to pollution or climate
change.
 Example: Identifying microorganisms capable of degrading
pollutants like oil spills, heavy metals, and plastic, and
employing them in bioremediation efforts to clean up
contaminated sites.

 Human Health and Disease:

 Description: Metagenomics helps in studying the human
microbiome—the collection of all microorganisms living in
and on the human body. This research can reveal the role of
microbiota in health and disease, leading to new diagnostic
tools and treatments.
 Example: Understanding the relationship between gut
microbiota and conditions like obesity, diabetes, and
inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). By identifying specific
microbial signatures associated with these diseases, new
therapeutic strategies can be developed.