Political science-Ill

Module-4
~ United Nations Organisat1an (UNO}
The United Nations Organization (UNO) Is a global Intergovernmental organization
established on October 24, 1945, followlng World War II, with the primary objective of
promoting International cooperation and maintaining peace and security among
nations.

* Formation:
The UNO was formed In the aftermath of World War 11, replacing the Ineffective
League of Nations. It was established through the United Nations Charter. signed by
51 countries, and officially came Into existence on October 24, 1945.

• Objectives:

• Maintaining International Peace and Security: The UN alms to prevent conflict and
facllltate peaceful resolutions of disputes between nations.

• Promoting Cooperation: It fosters cooperation In areas such as economic

development, social progress, human rights, and environmental sustalnablllty.

• Protecting Human Rights: The UN works to uphold and protect the rights and
dignity of all lndlviduals worldwide.
• Providing Humanitarian Aid: It plays a crucial role In providing assistance to
countries and communities affected by natural disasters, conflicts, and other
crises.

• Promoting Sustainable Devek>pment: The UN promotes sustainable development

goals (SDGs) to address global challenges such as poverty, inequality, climate
change, and environmental degradation.

• Purposes:
The purposes of the UN, as outlined In Its Charter, Include:

• To maintain International peace and security.

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• To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle
of equal rights and self-determination of peoples.

• To achieve International cooperation In solving International problems of an

economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian nature.

• To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations In attaining common

goals.

• Principles:

The UN operates based on several fundamental principles, Including:

• Sovereign Equality: All member states are equal under lnternatlonal law.

• Non-Interference: The UN refrains from Intervening In matters within the

domestic jurisdiction of any state.

• Peaceful Settlement of Disputes: Nations are encouraged to resolve conflicts

through peaceful means, such as negotiation. mediation. arbitration, and
judicial settlement.

• Non-Use of Force: The UN prohibits the use of force or threat of force In

International relations, except In cases of self-defense or when authorized by
the Security Council.

• Respect for Human Rights: The UN upholds and promotes human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all without discrimination.

* Principal Organs:
The UN has six principal organs:

• General Assembly: Comprising all member states. It discusses and makes

recommendations on various Issues, Including peace and security,
development, and budgetary matters.

• Security Council: Responsible for maintaining International peace and security,

it has five permanent members with veto power (USA, Russia, China, UK,
France) and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms.

• ~etarlat: Led by the Secretary-General, It carries out the day-to-day work of

the UN, Including Implementing decisions and providing administrative support.
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• lntemat1ona, Court of Justice (ICJ): The principal judicial organ of the UN, It
settles legal disputes between states based on international law.

• Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Coordinates International economic,

social, cultural, educational, and health-related work of UN specialized
agencies, NGOs, and member states.

• frrusteeshlp Council: Originally tasked with overseeing trust territories, It

suspended operations In 1994 after all trust territories gained Independence or
Joined other countries.

1) World Trade Organization (WTO):

The World Trade Organization serves as a cornerstone of global trade governance,

promoting a rules-based International trading system that fosters economic growth,
development, and prosperity. Key aspects of the WTO's work Include:

• frrade Negotiations; The WTO facilitates negotiations on trade agreements,

including multilateral trade rounds and sectoral negotiations, to reduce trade
barriers, liberalize trade, and promote fair and non-discriminatory trade
practices globally.

• !Trade Dispute Settlement: It provides a dispute settlement mechanism that

resolves trade disputes between member countries, ensuring compliance with
WTO rules, agreements, and dispute rulings, thereby enhancing predictability
and stability In international trade.

• ~rade Monitoring and Review: The WTO monitors trade policies, practices, and
measures of member states through trade policy reviews and trade monitoring
mechanisms, promoting transparency, accountability, and informed decision-
making In trade matters.

• Trade Capacity Building: The WTO offers technical assistance, training, and
capacity-building support to developing countries, particularly least developed
countries (LDCs), to help them participate effectively in global trade, comply
with WTO rules, and benefit from trade liberalization.

2) International Monetary Fund (IMF):

The International Monetary Fund plays a pivotal role in promoting global economic
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stablllty, monetary cooperation, and sustainable development. Key functions and
impact areas of the IMF Include:

• Macroeconomic SUrvetlance: The IMF conducts rigorous economic analysis,

assessments, and surveillance of member countries' economies, providing
policy advice, recommendations, and forecasts to promote macroeconomic
stability, fiscal disclpline, and sound economic policies.

• Financial Assistance: It provides financial support, including loans, credit lines,

and financial arrangements, to member countries facing balance of payments
crises, currency volatility, or economic challenges, helping restore confidence,
stabilize currencies, and address liquidity needs.

• t rlsls Prevention and Response: The IMF collaborates with member countries,
central banks, and International partners to prevent financial crises, address
systemic risks, enhance financial regulation and supervision, and strengthen
macroprudentlal policies, promoting financial stablllty and resilience.

• capacity Development: The IMF offers technical assistance, training, and

capacity-building programs to member countries, central banks, and financial
institutions in areas such as monetary policy, fiscal management, exchange
rate regimes, debt sustainability, and financial sector reform, fostering
economic resilience and policy effectiveness.

3) World Bank Group (WBG):

The World Bank Group plays a critical role In financing development projects,
reducing poverty, and promoting sustainable development worldwide. Key
institutions and impact areas within the World Bank Group Include:

• lntematlonaJ Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD): The IBRD

provides loans and development financing to middle-income and creditworthy
low-Income countries for Infrastructure projects, social services, economic
reforms, and private sector development, fostering economic growth, job
creation, and poverty reduction.

• International Development Association (IDA): The IDA offers concessional loans

and grants to the world's poorest countries, particularly In sub-Saharan Africa,
South Asia, and fragile states, to support essential Investments In health,
education, water, sanitation, rural development, and climate reslllence,
Improving living standards and human development outcomes.
• lnte,rnational ~lnance Corporation (IFC): The IFC Invests In private sector
proJ~, bustnesses, and financial institutions in developing countries
pro~oting entrepreneurship, innovation, job creation, and Inclusive growth,
while. al~ supporting sustainable business practices, environmentai
susta1nab1hty, and social impact.

• Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA): MIGA provides political risk

Insurance, guarantees, and credit enhancement to Investors and lenders In
developing countries, mitigating Investment risks, attracting foreign direct
Investment (FDI), and supporting Infrastructure projects, energy initiatives, and
private sector development, contributing to economic diversification and
resilience.

~) International Labour Organization (ILO):

rhe International Labour Organization is a key advocate for labor rights, decent work,
3nd social justice globally. Its functions and Impact areas include:

• Labor Standards: The ILO sets and promotes International labor standards through
conventions and recommendations on core labor rights, including freedom of
association, collective bargaining, forced labor abolition, child labor eradication, non-
discrimination, and decent working conditions, ensuring respect for workers' rights
and dignity.

• Labor Market Policies: It provides policy advice, technical assistance, and capacity-
building support to member states, employers' organizations, and trade unions In
developing and Implementing labor market policies, employment strategies, social
protection systems, and skills development initiatives, fostering lndusive growth, labor
market flexibility, and social dialogue.

• Sodal Justice: The ILO promotes social justice, Income security, social protection,
gender equality, and workers' rights, advocating for fair wages, occupational safety
and health, social security coverage, work-life balance, and decent working conditions
for all workers, lndudlng those In Informal and vulnerable employment

• Tripartite Dialogue: It facilitates tripartite dialogue and cooperation among

governments, employers, and workers' representatives, strengthening social dialogue
echanisms collective bargaining processes, Industrial relations systems, and labor
:spute resoiution mechanisms, promoting harmonious labor relations and peaceful
conflict resolution.

5) world Healt h Organization (WHO):

____,The Wor1d Health Organization is a leading authority on global health, disease prevention,
healthcare systems, and public health Initiatives. Its functions and Impact areas lndude:

• Dtsell!e Prevention: The WHO leads global efforts to prevent and control
communicable diseases, Including Infectious diseases (e.g., COVID-19, malaria,
tuberculosis), vaccine-preventable diseases, and emerging pandemics, through
surveillance, monitoring, earty warning systems, outbreak response, and vaccination
campaigns, saving lives and protecting public health.

• Healthcare Systems Strengthening: It supports member countries In strengthening

their healthcare systems, primary healthcare services. health infrastructure. health
workforce, medical supplies, and emergency preparedness and response capabilities,
Improving access to quality healthcare, essential medicines, and health technologies.

• Gk>bal Health Initiatives. The WHO coordinates global health initiatives, partnerships,
and campaigns to address major health chalenges, such as HIV/AIDS, maternal and
child health, non-communicable diseases (e.g., cancer, diabetes), mental health,
nutrition, environmental health, and universal health coverage, advancing health
equity, social determinants of health, and health for all.

• Health Emergency Response: It leads health emergency response efforts,

humanitarian assistance, and health coordination In crises, conflicts., natural disasters,
and public health emergencies, mobilizing resources, technical expertise, and
international cooperation to save lives, mitigate health risks, and support recovery and
resilience.

6) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO):

UNESCO plays a pivotal role In promoting education, culture, science, and communication to
foster global peace, sustainable development, and cultural heritage preservation. Its
functions and Impact areas Include:

• Education for Sustainable Oevek>pment- UNESCO promotes quality education, lifelong

learning, and education for sustainable development (ESD) to empower individuals,
promote civic engagement. enhance environmental literacy, foster global citizenship,
and build sustainable societies, contributing to the achievement of sustainable
development goals (SOGs) and lifelong learning opportunities for all.

• CIJtural Heritage Preservation: It protects and preserves cultural heritage sites,

monuments, traditions, languages, and intangible cultural heritage, promoting cultural
diversity, intercultural dialogue, heritage conservation, and creative Industries,
fostering cultural identity, mutual understanding, and social cohesion.

• Science, T ~. and Innovation: UNESCO supports scientlflc research, Innovation,

 technology transfer, STEM education, digital literacy, and open access to scientific
knowledge, addressing global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss,
water management, and disaster risk reduction, promoting scientific cooperation,
knowledge sharing, and evidence-based policymaking.

• Media Literacy and Freedom of Express,oo; It promotes media literacy, freedom of

expression, press freedom, journalism ethics, and media development, advocating for
media pluralism, Information access, digital rights, and media literacy education,
fostering media pluralism, transparency, and accountable media Institutions.

7) Unit ed Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF):

UNICEF Is a leading advocate for children's rights, protection, and well-being worldwide. Its
functions and Impact areas Include:

• Child Protection: UNICEF advocates for children's rights, protection from violence,
abuse, exploitation, and discrimination, promoting child-friendly policies, laws, and
programs to ensure their safety, well-being, and development, Including child
protection systems, birth registration, child participation, and social Inclusion.

• Health and Nutrition: It supports maternal and child healthcare, Immunization

programs, nutrition Interventions, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) Initiatives,
and early childhood development (ECO) services to Improve chlld survival, health
outcomes, and nutrition status, reducing Infant mortality, stunting, and malnutrition.

• Education and Child Development: UNICEF promotes quality education, inclusive

education, early childhood education, learning opportunities, skills development, and
child-friendly schools, ensuring access to education for all children, especially girls,
children with disabilities, and marginalized communities, enhancing learning
outcomes, literacy, and lifelong learning.

• Humanitarian Response; It provides humanitarian aid, emergency assistance, and

child protection services to children and families affected by conflicts, disasters,
displacement, emergencies, and crises, Including food assistance, healthcare,
psychosocial support, education in emergencies, and safe spaces for children,
addressing their Immediate needs and long-term resilience.

8) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) :

The Food and Agriculture Organization addresses food security, agriculture, and rural
development to eliminate hunger and Improve nutrition globally. Its functions and Impact
areas Include:

• Food Security: FAQ promotes food security for all, ensuring access to safe, nutritious,
and sufficient food for a healthy diet, addressing hunger, malnutrition, food Insecurity,
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 and poverty, supporting smallholder farmers, sustainable food systems, resilient
livelihoods, and climate-smart agriculture practices.

• AgricultU'al Devejopment: It supports agricultural productivity, value chain

development, rural infrastructure, access to markets, agricultural research, extension
services, and agricultural diversification, enhancing income generation, job creation,
and economic growth in rural areas, reducing rural poverty and inequalities.

• ,f'-'atural Resource Management: FAO promotes sustainable land management, water

resource management, forest conservation, biodiversity conservation, sustainable
fisheries, climate change adaptation, disaster risk reduction, and environmental
sustainability In agriculture, fisheries, and forestry sectors, promoting ecosystem
resilience and conservation.

• Paley and Governance: It provides policy advice, technical assistance, capacity

building, and knowledge sharing on agricultural policies, governance, land tenure,
agribusiness development, food safety, trade facilitation, and rural development
strategies, supporting evidence-based policymaking, Inclusive decision-making, and
participatory approaches.

~ [__eglonal Organizations and GrOI

1) Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC):

OPEC Is a regional Intergovernmental organization that alms to coordinate and unify

petroleum policies among Its member countries to secure fair and stable prices for
petroleum products. Key aspects of OPEC Include:

• Member Countries: OPEC currently has 13 member countries, each with varying levels
of oil production capacity and reserves. Some of the major members Include Saudi
Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Venezuela, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates.

• Oil Production and Quotas: OPEC plays a crucial role In setting production quotas for
Its member countries to regulate global oil supply and Influence prices. This is often
done through agreements and decisions made during OPEC meetings, where
member countries discuss market conditions and production levels.

• Market Influence: OPEC's decisions can have a significant Impact on global oil markets.
For example, Increases in production quotas can lead to lower oil prices, benefiting on-
consuming countries but potentially affecting revenues for oil-producing nations.

• Meetings and Decision-Making: OPEC holds regular ministerial meetings to discuss oil
market trends, supply-demand dynamics, geopolitical factors, and pricing strategies.
These meetings involve negotiations and consensus-building among member statec.;
 to reach agreements on production levels and market policies.

2) Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN):

• ASEAN Is a regional Intergovernmental organization that promotes economic, political,

security, and cultural cooperation among Its member countries In Southeast Asia. Key
aspects of ASEAN Include:

• Member COlXltrtes: ASEAN comprises ten member countries located In Southeast Asia,
Including Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar,
Cambodia, Laos, and Brunel.

• Regional lnt~ration: ASEAN promotes regr:onal Integration through various community

pillars:

1. ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) focuses on economic cooperation, trade

liberalization, investment facilitation,, and regional economic integration.

2. ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) aims to enhance political dialogue,

conflict resolution, security cooperation, and regional stability.

3. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) promotes social progress, cultural

cooperation, human rights, education, healthcare, and environmental
sustainability.

• Cooperation Areas: ASEAN's cooperation extends to trade and Investment, economic

development, connectivity (physical, digital, and people-to-people), education, healthcare,
environmental protection, disaster management, counterterrorism, and regional security.

• Dialogue Partnerships: ASEAN engages in dialogue partnerships with countries and

organizations outside the region, including major economies like China, Japan, South
Korea, the United States, and the European Union. These partnerships enhance
cooperation on regional and global issues, economic collaboration, security dialogue, and
diplomatic relations.

3) European Union (EU):

The European Union Is a political and economic union of 27 European countries that
cooperate on various policy areas, including trade, economic governance, security, and
environmental protectJon. Key aspects of the EU include:

• Member States: The EU Is composed of 27 member states, which cooperate closely on

various policy areas and share common Institutions. Member states include major
European economies such as Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, Belgium,
Sweden, Austria, and others.
 • ~ngle Market: The EU operates a single market characterized by the free movement
of goods, services, capital, and people among member states. This promotes
economic Integration, trade f acllltatlon, and market competitiveness within the EU.

• 'Eurozone: The Eurozone Is a subset of EU countries (19 out of 27) that use the euro as
their common currency. This currency union fosters financial Integration, price stability,
and monetary policy coordination among Eurozone members.

• Institutions: The EU has several key Institutions that govern Its policymaking,
legislation, and governance:

1. European Commission: The executive branch responsible for proposing

legislation, Implementing EU policies, and representing the EU Internationally.

2. European Parliament: The directly elected legislative body representing EU

citizens and participating In lawmaking, budget approval, and policy debates.

3. European Council: Comprising heads of state or government, It sets the EU's

strategic priorities, provides political guidance, and resolves major policy
Issues.

4. European Central Bank (ECB): Responsible for monetary policy, currency

Issuance, and financial stability within the Eurozone, ensuring price stablllty
and economic resilience.

4) Arab League:

The Arab League Is a regional organization of Arab countries In the Middle East and North
Africa that promotes political, economic, cultural, and social cooperation among Its member
states. Key aspects of the Arab League Include:

• Member States. The Arab League comprises 22 member states In the Middle East and
North Africa, Including Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Libya, Tunisia,
Algeria, Morocco, and others.

• Objectives and Cooperation. The Arab League alms to promote political, economic,
cultural, and social cooperation among Arab countries, fostering solidarity, unity, and
Joint action on regional Issues such as conflicts, security, human rights, and
development.

• Pan-Arab SoHdartty: One of the key goals of the Arab League Is to foster pan-Arab
solidarity and cooperation, encouraging member states to work together on common
challenges and opportunities.

• ~ab Peace Initiative: The Arab League has proposed peace Initiatives and resolL~tlcns
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regarding the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, advocating for a two-state solution, peaceful

resolution of disputes, and the promotion of stability and security In the region.

• Summits and Meetings: The Arab League holds regular summits, meetings, and
ministerial conferences to discuss regional challenges, coordinate policies, enhance
Arab unity and solidarity, and address pressing Issues facing Arab countries.

5) South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC):

SAARC Is a regional organization of South Asian countries that promotes cooperation In areas
such as trade, economic development, social progress, cultural exchange, and regional
stability. Key aspects of SAARC Include:

• Member Countries: SAARC consists of eight member countries In South Asia, Including
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, and Afghanistan {as
an observer).

• Regional Cooperation: SAARC alms to promote cooperation and Integration among

South Asian countries In various areas such as trade, economic development, social
progress, cultural exchange, and regional stability.

• Mechanisms and Agreements: SAARC has established mechanisms like SAFTA {South
Asian Free Trade Area) and SAPTA (South Asian Preferential Trade Agreement) to
facilitate trade, Investment, and economic cooperation among member states. It also
focuses on Initiatives In agriculture, health, education, environment, and disaster
management.

• Challenges and Opportunities: SAARC addresses common challenges In the region,

Including poverty, Inequality, terrorism, climate change, natural disasters, and cross-
border Issues. It also explores opportunities for economic growth, connectivity,
Infrastructure development, and people-to-people exchanges to enhance regional
cooperation and Integration.

6) Group of Seven (G7)

The Group of Seven Is an Informal forum of seven major advanced economies that meet
annually to discuss global economic, polltlcal, and security Issues. Key aspects of the G7
Include:

• Member Countries: The G7 comprises seven major advanced economies, Including the
United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and Japan.

• Summits and Agenda. G7 summits bring together leaders from member countries to
discuss global economic, political, and security Issues. The agenda often Includes
topics such as economic growth, t r ade, climate change, energy, environmttrit al
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sustainability, digital innovation, global governance, and international security.

• Coordination and Cooperation. The G7 facilitates coordination and cooperation

among major economies on pressing global challenges. It promotes policy
coordination, crisis response, International cooperation initiatives, and collaboration
on Issues of mutual Interest and concern.

7) BRICS:

BRICS is an informal grouping of five major emerging economies that collaborate on

economic, political, and strategic issues. Key aspects of BRICS include:

Member Countries: BRICS comprises five major emerging economies - Brazil, Russia, India,
China, and South Africa.

Economic Cooperation: BRICS countries collaborate on economic issues such as trade,

investment. infrastructure development, financial cooperation, and development finance.
They also discuss issues related to global economic governance and reform of international
financial institutions.

Poltticat Dialogue: BRICS conducts political dialogue and coordination on regional and global
issues, including reform of international institutions, multilateralism, global governance, and
strategic partnerships.

Development Initiatives: BRICS promotes development cooperation, South-South

cooperation, technology transfer, innovation, and sustainable development goals (SDGs)
implementation. They also discuss issues related to climate change, energy, and
environmental sustalnabllity.

8) Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD):

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, known as the QUAD, Is an informal strategic

forum comprising four democratic countries in the lndo-Pacific region. Key aspects of
the QUAD ilnclude:

• Member Countries: The QUAD comprises four member countries - the United States,
Japan, India, and Australia.

• Strategic Cooperation: The QUAD focuses on strategic cooperation, maritime security.

regional stability, freedom of navigation, rule of law, democratic values, and defense
cooperation In the lndo-Paclflc region.

• Shared Interests: The QUAD members share common Interests In promoting a free,
open, inclusive, and rules-based lndo-Paclflc region, addressing security challenges,
promoting economic prosperity, and upholding international norms and principles.

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9) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO):

NATO Is a political and military alliance of North American and European countries that
promotes collective defense, security cooperation, and transatlantic relations. Key aspects of
NATO Include:

• Member Countries: NATO consists of 30 member countries, Including North American

and European nations.

• Colectlve Defense: NATO's core mission Is collective defense, where member

countries commit to mutual defense and solidarity In response to armed attacks
against any member state, as enshrined In Article 5 of the NATO Treaty.

• Security Cooperation: NATO engages in security cooperation, crisis management,

peacekeeping operations, counterterrorlsm efforts, defense capabilities development,
and military exercises to enhance deterrence, stability, and security In the Euro-
Atlantic area and beyond.

• Partnerships: NATO maintains partnerships with non-member countries, International

organizations, and partner nations worldwide, promoting security dialogue,
Interoperability, capacity building, and cooperation on common security challenges.

10) Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Techn ical and Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC):

BIMSTEC is a regional organization that fosters cooperation among countries In the Bay of
Bengal region to promote economic Integration, connectivity, and development. Key aspects
of BIMSTEC include:

• Member Countries: BIMSTEC consists of seven member countries In the Bay of Bengal
region - Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal, and Bhutan.

• l=ocus Areas: BIMSTEC focuses on key areas such as trade and Investment,
connectivity {physical, economic, and people-to-people), energy cooperation,
technology transfer, tourism, fisheries, agriculture, disaster management, and cultural
exchanges.

• Subregion. Cooperation: BIMSTEC promotes subregional cooperation and

collaboration among member countries In specific areas of mutual Interest, enhancing
regional Integration, economic growth, and sustainable development.

• Strategic Importance: BIMSTEC Is strategically Important for enhancing connectivity

and cooperation between South Asia and Southeast Asia, leveraging the region's
economic potential, natural resources, and cultural diversity.
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~ piobat Not d, - clvtde'.
Global North-South Divide:

The Global North-South divide refers to the socio-economic and political disparities
between the developed, Industrialized countries of the Northern Hemisphere (Global
North) and the less developed or developing countries of the Southern Hemisphere
(Global South). This division is characterized by:

• Economic Disparities:

• GOP Per Capita: The Global North typically exhibits higher GDP per capita due
to advanced industries, technology sectors, and robust financial systems.

• Infrastructure: Infrastructure in the Global North, Including transportation,

communication, and energy, Is often more developed and efficient, facilitating
economic activities.

• (Technology and Resources: Advanced technology and access to resources

contribute to higher productivity and innovation in the Global North, leading to
economic advantages.

* Developmental Challenges:
• Poverty: The Global South experiences higher levels of poverty, with a
significant portion of the population living below the poverty line due to factors
like limited access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities.

• Healthcare: Healthcare systems In many Global South countries face

challenges such as Inadequate funding, lack of Infrastructure, and unequal
distribution of healthcare services.

• Education: Access to quality education Is limited in some parts of the Global

South, leading to disparities In literacy rates, skill development, and economic
opportunities.

• Infrastructure Deficits: Poor Infrastructure, Including roads, water supply, and

sanitation, hinders economic growth and quality of life In the Global South.

* Trade Imbalances:
• ~ ~dency: Many Global South countries rely heavily on exporting
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raw materials and agricultural products, which are often subject to price
fluctuations and market volatlllty.

• Unequal Terms of Trade: Global North countries, with their technological

advancements and market dominance, often dictate terms of trade that favor
their Interests, leading to unequal exchanges and limited benefits for the
Global South.

• Dependency on Imports: The Global South may depend on Imports for

technology, machinery, and high-value goods, contributing to trade deficits
and economic vulnerablllty.

* Political Influence:
* International Organizations: Global North nations hold significant Influence In
International organizations such as the UN, World Bank, and IMF, shaping
policies, funding priorities, and development agendas.

* Bilateral and Multilateral Relations: Political alliances and agreements often

reflect the Interests of the Global North, Influencing trade agreements, aid
distribution, and geopolitical strategies.

* Devek>pment Assistance: Aid and development programs from Global North

countries and Institutions may come with conditions that benefit donor
Interests, Impacting economic policies and governance In the Global South.

St.....,Y In the GlobirNci tti':

• Political StabHlty: Many Global North countries have stable political systems,
democratic Institutions, and rule of law, fostering investor confidence and
economic stability.

• Institutional Strength: Strong regulatory frameworks, Independent judiciary,

and transparent governance contribute to economic growth and resllience In
the face of challenges.

• Social Welfare Systems: Wetfare programs, healthcare coverage, and social

safety nets In the Global North provide stability and support for citizens during
economic downturns.

Pros,111 In the Global Southi

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• Economic Growth: Despite challenges, many Global South countries have
experienced economic growth and diversification, driven by sectors such as
manufacturing, services, and technology.

• Human Development: Investments in education, healthcare, and social

programs have Improved living standards, reduced poverty rates, and
Increased life expectancy In some regions of the Global South.

• ~eglon8' Cooperation: Initiatives for regional Integration, trade agreements,

and Infrastructure development projects contribute to progress and economic
resilience In the Global South.

~ Wealth (NEO and PEO) and Vac:di'w lneau•lltlri

* New International Economic Order (NIEO):

The NIEO was a concept proposed In the 1970s by developing countries to

restructure the global economic system In a way that would benefit the Global South.
Key points of NIEO Included:

• Fairer Trade: Advocated for fairer terms of trade, reduced tariffs, and Increased
market access for developing countries.

• Resource Control: Called for greater control over natural resources and a more
equitable distribution of profits from resource extraction.

• Debt Relief: Sought debt relief for developing countries burdened by external
debt.

* Post-International Economic Order (PIEO):

PIEO refers to the economic dynamics following the Cold War era and the evolution
of global economic governance. Key aspects Include:

• Neollberal Policies: Emphasis on free market prlnclples, privatization, deregulation, and

reduced state Intervention In the economy.

• Globalization: Increased Interconnectedness of economies, trade llberallzatlon, and

the rise of multinational corporations (MNCs) Influencing global economic trends.

• Income lnequaftty: Critics argue that PIEO has exacerbated wealth Inequality globally,
with benefits disproportionately favoring the already wealthy nations and elites.

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~~ lne lnequal!yJ
The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted disparities In access to vaccines between
wealthy and poorer nations, raising ethical and practical concerns:

• Access Disparities: Wealthier nations secured early access to vaccines, while

many developing countries faced challenges in acquiring an adequate supply.

• Health Equity: Vaccine Inequality raises questions of health equity and global
solidarity in addressing public health crises.

• Economic Impacts: Unequal vaccine distribution can prolong the pandemic,

leading to economic repercussions globally and exacerbating existing North-
South economic disparities.

[!I r=an.eJultlce:
Carbon Divide:

The Carbon Divide refers to the unequal distribution of carbon emissions globally,
where developed countries historically contributed significantly more to carbon
emissions compared to developing nations. Key points include:

• Historical Responslblllty: Developed nations have a historical responsibility for

the majority of carbon emissions that have led to climate change.

• Olmate Impacts: Developing countries often bear the brunt of climate change
impacts, such as extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and disruptions to
agriculture and livelihoods.

• Mitigation and Adaptation: Climate justice advocates argue for equitable

solutions that prioritize mitigation efforts (reducing emissions) and adaptation
measures (building resilience) in vulnerable regions.

Carbon Credit:

Carbon credits are a market-based mechanism aimed at reducing greenhouse gas

emissions. Key aspects include:

Emission Trading: Allows companies or countries to buy carbon credits to offset their
emissions, promoting Investment In cleaner technologies.

Critiques: Critics argue that carbon credits can sometimes be used as a loophole,
allowing polluters to continue emitting while buying credits rather than making
substantial emission reductions.
Human security refers to the protection and empowerment of Individuals and
communities, ensuring their safety and well-being In a holistic manner. It
encompasses various dimensions such as economic security, food security, health
security, envlronmental security, personal security, community security, and political
security. Human security goes beyond traditional state-centric security concerns and
focuses on the security of people In their dally lives, addressing threats that affect
their dignity, rights, and basic needs.

Asylum seekers, migrants, and refugees are distinct groups with different legal
statuses and reasons for movement:

1) Asylum Seekers:

Legal Status:

• Asylum seekers are individuals who have left their home countries and seek
asylum in another country due to fear of persecution. They are often protected
under international and national asylum laws.

• The legal process for asylum seekers involves applying for asylum upon arrival
In the host country or at a designated immigration office. This process may
vary depending on the country's asylum procedures and legal frameworks.

Reasons for Movement:.

• Asylum seekers flee their home countries due to various reasons such as
persecution based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or
membership In a particular social group.

• Persecution can manifest In forms like threats to life, freedom, or serious harm,
making It unsafe for Individuals to remain In their home countries.

Rights and Protections:

• Asylum seekers have the right to apply for asylum and are entitled to certain
protections during the asylum process.

• These protections may Include the principle of non-refoulement, which

prohibits the host country from returning asylum seekers to a country where
they would face persecution.
 • Asylum seekers are often provided with temporary accommodation, access to
legal assistance, healthcare, and basic necessities while their asylum claims are
being processed.

2) Refugees:

L~Status:

• Refugees are Individuals who have been granted refugee status by a host
country after a successful asylum appllcatlon.

• Once recognized as refugees, they are entitled to legal protection and

assistance under International refugee law and domestic laws of the host
country.

Reasons for Movement:

• Refugees flee their home countries due to a well-founded fear of persecution,

conflict, violence, or human rights violations.

• They are unable or unwilling to return to their home countries because of the
risks they face.

Rights and Protections:

• Refugees have specific rights and protections under lnternatlonal refugee law,
Including the right to non-discrimination, access to education, healthcare, and
employment.

• They may also have the opportunity to eventually obtain citizenship or

permanent residency in the host country, depending on the country's policies
and Integration programs for refugees.

3) Migrants:

L~Status:
• Migrants comprise a diverse group, including economic migrants, family
reunification migrants, students, and others moving for various reasons.

• Their legal status varies depending on national Immigration laws, policies, and
agreements.
8easons for Movement":

• Migrants move for a range of reasons, Including economic opportunities, family

reunification, education, seeking better living conditions, or escaping conflict or
environmental challenges.

• Unlike asylum seekers and refugees, their movement Is often not directly
related to persecution or violence In their home countries.

~lghts and Protections

• The rights and protections of migrants depend on the legal frameworks of the
host country and International agreements.

• Migrants may have rights to work, access to education, healthcare, and legal
protections against exploitation, discrimination, and human trafficking.

• Some migrants may have temporary or permanent residency status, work

permits, or visas that grant them specific rights and responsibilities In the host
country.