Module 1:

Cellular Concepts

1. Cell Structure: A cellular network divides a region into small geographic areas called
cells, each served by a base station. This structure allows for efficient use of
frequencies and reduces interference.
2. Frequency Reuse: Cells are organized in a pattern where each uses a specific
frequency band. Adjacent cells use different frequencies to avoid interference, while
cells separated by a certain distance can reuse frequencies, increasing spectrum
efficiency.
3. Cell Splitting: When traffic demand in a cell increases, it can be split into smaller
cells to increase capacity. Each new cell uses a fraction of the original cell’s
frequency but has a smaller coverage area, allowing more users in the region.
4. Channel Assignment: Channels are assigned to cells and users in a way that
minimizes interference and maximizes resource utilization. There are two main
strategies: fixed channel assignment (predetermined) and dynamic channel
assignment (based on real-time traffic).
5. Handoff: When a user moves from one cell to another, the network shifts (or "hands
off") the connection to the next cell's base station to maintain service continuity.
Handoffs can be soft (where connection is kept with both cells briefly) or hard (one
connection is dropped before another starts).
6. Interference: Interference occurs when multiple users or cells operate on overlapping
frequencies. Techniques like frequency reuse, power control, and sectoring help
mitigate interference.
7. Capacity: This refers to the maximum number of users or calls a cellular system can
support within a cell. Capacity can be improved by techniques like cell splitting,
frequency reuse, and advanced modulation.
8. Power Control: Power control adjusts the transmission power to minimize
interference and extend battery life. This ensures signal strength is sufficient for
communication without overwhelming adjacent cells.

Wireless Standards

1. 2G (Second Generation):
o Technology: Primarily GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).
o Features: Enabled digital voice communication, SMS, and limited data
services like MMS.
o Frequency Bands: Operated on bands like 900 MHz and 1800 MHz.
o Data Rates: Up to 50 Kbps (GPRS) and 384 Kbps (EDGE).
2. 3G (Third Generation):
o Technology: UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) and
CDMA2000.
o Features: Provided faster data rates, supporting video calls, mobile internet,
and multimedia streaming.
o Frequency Bands: Primarily used 2100 MHz.
o Data Rates: Ranges from 144 Kbps (basic 3G) up to 2 Mbps (HSPA, High-
Speed Packet Access).
Module 2:
Signal Propagation Mechanisms

1. Reflection: Occurs when a signal encounters a large, smooth surface, like buildings or
walls, and bounces back. This can cause multipath propagation, where the same signal
reaches the receiver by multiple paths.
2. Refraction: The bending of signal waves as they pass through different mediums
(like air to glass). This can slightly alter the path and strength of a signal.
3. Diffraction: When a signal encounters an obstacle, such as a building edge, it bends
around the obstacle. This enables signal reception even when direct line-of-sight
(LOS) isn't available.
4. Scattering: Occurs when a signal hits small objects or irregular surfaces (like foliage
or rough terrain), causing the signal to spread in various directions.
5. Large Scale Signal Propagation and Lognormal Shadowing: Describes signal
attenuation over large distances due to path loss, which varies based on distance and
environment. Lognormal shadowing models this as a random variation (or
“shadowing”) around an average path loss, following a log-normal distribution.

Fading Channels

1. Multipath and Small-Scale Fading: Multipath fading happens when multiple signal
paths (due to reflection, diffraction, etc.) combine at the receiver, causing fluctuations
in received signal strength and phase. Small-scale fading refers to these rapid signal
changes over short distances or time periods.
2. Doppler Shift: A change in the frequency of the signal due to the relative motion
between the transmitter and receiver. The Doppler effect causes frequency shifts that
impact signal quality in moving environments.
3. Statistical Multipath Channel Models: These models characterize the statistical
nature of multipath fading. Rayleigh and Rician fading are common models
representing environments with no direct line of sight (NLOS) and environments with
a dominant direct path, respectively.
4. Narrowband and Wideband Fading Models:
o Narrowband Fading: Assumes a single frequency or narrow frequency range,
where fading affects the signal uniformly.
o Wideband Fading: Involves a wider range of frequencies, where different
parts of the signal spectrum experience distinct fading, useful in high-data-rate
systems.
5. Power Delay Profile: Measures the power of multipath components over different
time delays. It gives insights into the channel’s time dispersion characteristics.
6. Average and RMS Delay Spread: Represents the time delay differences between
multipath signals. The Root Mean Square (RMS) delay spread gives a measure of
delay variability, impacting signal quality in time-dispersive channels.
7. Coherence Bandwidth and Coherence Time:
o Coherence Bandwidth: Frequency range over which the channel response is
relatively constant. It indicates whether the channel exhibits flat or frequency-
selective fading.
o Coherence Time: The time interval over which the channel’s characteristics
remain stable, inversely related to Doppler spread.
8. Flat and Frequency Selective Fading:
o Flat Fading: Occurs when the signal bandwidth is less than the channel’s
coherence bandwidth, affecting all frequencies uniformly.
o Frequency Selective Fading: Happens when the signal bandwidth exceeds
coherence bandwidth, causing different frequencies to fade independently.
9. Slow and Fast Fading:
o Slow Fading: Caused by large obstacles in the environment, leading to
gradual signal changes as the receiver moves.
o Fast Fading: Due to rapid signal changes from multipath propagation,
occurring over small distances or time scales.
10. Average Fade Duration and Level Crossing Rate:
o Average Fade Duration: The average time a signal stays below a specified
level.
o Level Crossing Rate: The rate at which the signal crosses a specified
threshold level, giving a measure of how frequently signal fades occur.
Module 3:
Channel Capacity in Flat and Frequency-Selective Channels

1. Flat Fading Channels:

o In flat fading, the entire signal bandwidth is affected equally because the
channel's coherence bandwidth is larger than the signal bandwidth.
o Capacity: The capacity CCC of a flat fading channel depends on the average
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The channel’s capacity can be expressed as:

C=B⋅log2(1+SNR)

where B is the bandwidth.

o Challenge: Since the entire signal is uniformly affected, signal fades can lead
to temporary loss of data. Adaptive modulation and power control can help
improve reliability.
2. Frequency-Selective Fading Channels:
o In frequency-selective fading, different frequencies experience different levels
of fading because the signal bandwidth is larger than the coherence bandwidth.
o Capacity: Frequency-selective channels can offer greater capacity as they can
support multiple paths, which are often exploited using techniques like
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). Capacity depends on
both SNR and channel diversity across sub-bands:

C=i∑Bi⋅log2(1+SNRi)

where Bi and SNRi are the bandwidth and SNR for each frequency sub-
channel.

o Advantage: Frequency diversity can improve reliability and resilience, as

fading at one frequency may not affect others.

Antennas in Mobile Communication

1. Mobile Terminal Antennas:

o Monopole Antennas: Common in mobile devices, monopole antennas are
simple, low-profile, and designed to operate efficiently in specific frequency
bands. They rely on a ground plane for effective radiation and are compact,
making them suitable for handheld devices.
o Planar Inverted-F Antenna (PIFA): A popular choice for mobile devices
due to its low profile and efficient radiation pattern. PIFAs are compact,
suitable for multi-band operation, and offer good impedance matching and
radiation efficiency.
2. Base Station Antennas:
o Base station antennas are designed for higher gain and to cover large areas.
They typically have a more directional radiation pattern to focus energy in
specific directions.
 o Sector Antennas: Used to cover specific sectors in a cellular layout, providing
targeted coverage in urban and suburban environments. They often have 120°,
90°, or 60° beam widths.
o Omni-Directional Antennas: Radiate equally in all horizontal directions and
are used in small cells or rural areas where directional coverage is less critical.
3. Antenna Arrays:
o Phased Arrays: Phased arrays consist of multiple antenna elements with
adjustable phase shifts, allowing the array to steer its main beam electronically
without moving the antenna physically. Phased arrays are highly adaptive and
can be used for beamforming, improving capacity and reducing interference.
o Massive MIMO Arrays: Massive Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
arrays are used in 5G base stations, with a large number of antennas to
enhance capacity, spatial multiplexing, and interference mitigation. Massive
MIMO provides improved coverage and higher data rates through spatial
diversity and beamforming.
Module 4:
Multiple Access Schemes

1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):

o Principle: Divides the available bandwidth into distinct frequency channels,
each assigned to a different user.
o Usage: Common in analog systems like 1G, where each user gets a unique
frequency. Simple to implement but less spectrum-efficient for large numbers
of users.
2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access):
o Principle: Divides each frequency channel into time slots. Multiple users
share the same frequency but transmit in different time slots.
o Usage: Used in systems like GSM (2G). TDMA is more efficient than FDMA
in digital systems, but synchronization is essential to avoid interference.
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):
o Principle: Users share the same frequency and time but are separated by
unique codes. Each user’s data is spread across the entire bandwidth using a
unique spreading code.
o Usage: Widely used in 3G systems (e.g., UMTS). It provides high capacity
and security but requires complex processing.
4. SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access):
o Principle: Uses spatial separation to allow multiple users to access the same
frequency and time resources by differentiating between users in distinct
physical locations.
o Usage: Often used in conjunction with MIMO and beamforming in 4G/5G
systems, where different beams are directed toward users, optimizing spatial
usage of spectrum.

Modulation Schemes

1. BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):

o Principle: Uses two phases (0° and 180°) to represent binary data (0 and 1).
o Usage: Simple and robust against noise but has a lower data rate compared to
higher-order schemes.
2. QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):
o Principle: Uses four distinct phases to represent two bits per symbol, doubling
the data rate compared to BPSK.
o Variants:
 π/4 QPSK: A variation that changes phases in steps of 45°, reducing
sudden phase shifts and making it suitable for mobile environments.
3. QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation):
o Principle: Combines amplitude and phase modulation to represent data in
multiple levels. Variants like 16-QAM, 64-QAM, and 256-QAM increase the
data rate by encoding more bits per symbol.
o Usage: Widely used in high-speed data systems like 4G and Wi-Fi. Higher
QAM levels increase capacity but are more sensitive to noise.
4. MSK (Minimum Shift Keying):
 o Principle: A form of continuous phase frequency shift keying (FSK) where
phase changes smoothly, minimizing sudden shifts.
o Usage: Efficient in terms of bandwidth, commonly used in GSM and other
cellular systems due to its spectral efficiency and reduced sideband
interference.
5. GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying):
o Principle: A variant of MSK where the data is filtered through a Gaussian
filter before modulation, reducing sideband power and making the signal more
bandwidth-efficient.
o Usage: Used in GSM, as it balances spectral efficiency and noise robustness.
6. Multicarrier Modulation:
o Principle: Data is transmitted over multiple subcarriers, each modulated with
a lower data rate. This mitigates issues with multipath fading by spreading
data over different frequencies.
o Usage: Provides robustness against frequency-selective fading, often used in
OFDM.
7. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing):
o Principle: A type of multicarrier modulation where subcarriers are orthogonal
(non-overlapping) in the frequency domain, preventing interference. Each
subcarrier transmits a low data rate stream, making it resilient to multipath
fading.
o Usage: Key technology in 4G and 5G systems due to its high spectral
efficiency and resilience in fading environments.
Module 5:
Receiver Structures

1. Diversity Receivers:
o Selection Combining: A type of diversity receiver that selects the antenna
with the highest SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) at any given time. It’s simple to
implement but doesn’t fully utilize all available signal paths.
o Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC): MRC combines signals from multiple
antennas by weighting each signal path according to its SNR and then
summing them, maximizing the received signal quality. This method is more
complex but offers better performance and resilience to fading than selection
combining.
2. RAKE Receiver:
o Principle: RAKE receivers are designed for multipath environments (e.g.,
CDMA systems). They use multiple “fingers” to capture delayed signal
components (or multipath components) that arrive at different times,
combining them to improve signal strength and quality.
o Usage: Common in CDMA and other wideband systems, RAKE receivers
improve signal quality by taking advantage of time-dispersed multipath
components.

Equalization

Equalization techniques are used to combat inter-symbol interference (ISI), especially in

environments with multipath fading.

1. Linear Equalizer (Zero Forcing Equalizer, ZFE):

o Principle: A linear filter that inversely adjusts the received signal to
counteract channel effects, aiming to zero out ISI. The ZFE effectively undoes
the channel’s effect but can amplify noise, especially in low SNR conditions.
o Usage: Suitable for channels with lower noise, but may not perform well
under severe fading conditions.
2. Adaptive Equalizer:
o Principle: An adaptive equalizer adjusts its parameters in real-time to track
changes in the channel, using algorithms like Least Mean Squares (LMS) to
minimize ISI.
o Usage: Useful in varying environments where the channel conditions fluctuate
frequently, making it more effective than a static equalizer.
3. Decision Feedback Equalizer (DFE):
o Principle: DFE uses both past and current detected symbols to remove ISI. It
consists of a feedforward filter (to mitigate future ISI) and a feedback filter (to
eliminate ISI caused by previously detected symbols).
o Usage: DFE provides better performance than linear equalizers, especially in
severe ISI conditions, but is more complex to implement.

Transmit Diversity

1. Alamouti Scheme:
o Principle: The Alamouti scheme is a simple transmit diversity technique for
systems with two transmit antennas. It transmits two symbols over two
consecutive time slots in a pattern that enables the receiver to decode the
signal with full diversity gain.
o Operation: In the first time slot, symbol s1s_1s1 is sent from the first antenna,
and symbol s2s_2s2 is sent from the second antenna. In the next time slot, the
complex conjugate of s2s_2s2 and the negative conjugate of s1s_1s1 are
transmitted, respectively. The receiver then combines these to improve signal
quality and mitigate fading.
o Usage: The Alamouti scheme is often implemented in 3G and 4G systems due
to its simplicity and effectiveness in improving reliability, even in fading
channels.
Module 6:
MIMO and Space-Time Signal Processing

1. MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output):

o Principle: MIMO uses multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver
to increase data throughput and reliability. It exploits multipath propagation by
sending different data streams over multiple spatial paths.
o Benefits: MIMO enhances capacity and robustness against fading, making it
essential in modern systems like 4G LTE and 5G.
2. Space-Time Signal Processing:
o Principle: Space-time processing applies algorithms across both spatial
(multiple antennas) and temporal dimensions to improve signal quality. It
includes techniques like space-time coding, which enhances signal robustness
against fading by adding redundancy across time and space.
o Usage: Space-time block coding (STBC), such as the Alamouti scheme, is a
popular technique in MIMO systems for achieving transmit diversity.
3. Spatial Multiplexing:
o Principle: In spatial multiplexing, multiple data streams are transmitted
simultaneously over different antennas and spatial paths, significantly
boosting data rates.
o Challenges: While spatial multiplexing increases capacity, it requires good
SNR and minimal interference between spatial channels (good channel
conditions) for optimal performance.
4. Diversity/Multiplexing Tradeoff:
o Principle: There’s a tradeoff between diversity (improving reliability by
sending redundant information) and multiplexing (increasing data rate by
sending independent data streams). Choosing between the two depends on the
required reliability and channel conditions.
o Application: In poor channel conditions, prioritizing diversity improves link
robustness, while under good channel conditions, spatial multiplexing
maximizes data rates.

Performance Measures

1. Outage Probability:
o Definition: Outage probability is the probability that the received SNR falls
below a threshold, resulting in poor performance or signal loss. It’s an
indicator of reliability, with lower outage probabilities signifying better link
stability.
2. Average SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio):
o Definition: Average SNR measures the mean signal strength relative to noise
over time. Higher SNR generally improves data rates and reduces errors.
3. Average Symbol/Bit Error Rate (SER/BER):
o Definition: SER/BER are metrics for the average error rate of transmitted
symbols or bits, respectively. Lower error rates indicate better system
performance and link quality.

System Examples in Mobile Communication

1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications):
o Generation: 2G
o Multiple Access: TDMA/FDMA
o Features: Primarily designed for voice; also supports SMS and low-rate data.
Operates with GMSK modulation, achieving moderate spectral efficiency.
2. EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution):
o Generation: 2.5G
o Multiple Access: TDMA/FDMA
o Features: An enhancement to GSM, enabling higher data rates for mobile
internet by using higher-order modulation (8-PSK). Offers up to 384 kbps
under ideal conditions.
3. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service):
o Generation: 2.5G
o Multiple Access: TDMA/FDMA
o Features: Introduces packet-switched data to GSM networks, allowing
"always-on" internet connectivity. Provides data rates up to 115 kbps.
4. IS-95 (Interim Standard 95):
o Generation: 2G (CDMA-based)
o Multiple Access: CDMA
o Features: Known as cdmaOne, IS-95 uses CDMA technology for greater
capacity and better voice quality than GSM. Operates with QPSK and BPSK
modulation for robust signal processing.
5. CDMA2000:
o Generation: 3G
o Multiple Access: CDMA
o Features: An evolution of IS-95, CDMA2000 supports higher data rates for
mobile internet and multimedia. Used extensively in North America and Asia,
with data rates up to 2 Mbps.
6. WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access):
o Generation: 3G
o Multiple Access: CDMA (with a wider bandwidth)
o Features: Used in UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System),
WCDMA provides higher data rates and better capacity, supporting
multimedia applications with speeds up to 2 Mbps.