Unit 1: Cellular Concepts

1. Cell Structure

A cellular network divides a geographical area into small regions called cells. Each cell is served
by a base station, which provides coverage and manages communication with devices. The
hexagonal structure is commonly used to approximate cells for efficient planning. Cell size
varies based on population density, traffic demand, and terrain. Small cells like microcells and
picocells are used in densely populated areas to enhance coverage and capacity.

2. Frequency Reuse

Frequency reuse is the practice of assigning the same frequencies to non-adjacent cells to
optimize spectrum use. The reuse factor (NNN) determines the distance between cells using the
same frequencies. A higher NNN reduces interference but limits capacity, while a lower NNN
increases capacity at the cost of potential interference.

3. Cell Splitting

Cell splitting increases capacity by dividing large cells into smaller cells with reduced coverage.
This requires additional base stations and careful frequency management to avoid interference.

4. Channel Assignment

Channel assignment allocates frequencies to cells to minimize interference and maximize

capacity. Methods include fixed channel allocation (FCA), dynamic channel allocation (DCA),
and hybrid approaches.

5. Handoff

Handoff refers to transferring an active call from one cell to another as a user moves. Seamless
handoff ensures uninterrupted communication. Techniques include hard handoff (break-before-
make) and soft handoff (make-before-break).

6. Interference

Interference occurs due to overlapping frequencies or external sources. Co-channel interference

arises from frequency reuse, while adjacent-channel interference occurs from overlapping
spectra.

7. Capacity

Capacity refers to the number of simultaneous users a network can support. Factors influencing
capacity include bandwidth, frequency reuse, and modulation schemes.
8. Power Control

Power control adjusts transmission power to reduce interference and conserve energy.
Techniques include open-loop, closed-loop, and adaptive power control.

9. Wireless Standards

Wireless standards like GSM, LTE, and 5G define network protocols and technologies, ensuring
global compatibility and service quality.

10. Introduction to Generations (2G to 5G)

 2G: Focused on voice with SMS and limited data (e.g., GSM).
 3G: Introduced mobile broadband and video calling (e.g., WCDMA).
 4G: Offered high-speed internet and IP-based services (e.g., LTE).
 5G: Provides ultra-low latency, massive device connectivity, and high data rates for IoT
and AI applications.

Unit 2: Signal Propagation

1. Propagation Mechanisms

 Reflection: Signals bounce off large surfaces like buildings, impacting signal strength
and direction.
 Refraction: Signals bend as they pass through different media, altering their propagation
path.
 Diffraction: Signals bend around obstacles, enabling coverage beyond LOS.
 Scattering: Signals interact with small objects, dispersing energy in various directions.

2. Large-Scale Signal Propagation

This deals with signal behavior over long distances, influenced by factors like free-space loss,
shadowing, and terrain. Path loss models like Hata or Okumura predict signal strength variations.

3. Fading Channels

Fading occurs due to multipath propagation, where signals take multiple paths to the receiver.
Types include:

 Multipath Fading: Results from reflected and scattered signals combining.

 Small-Scale Fading: Short-term signal variations due to movement.

4. Doppler Shift
Doppler shift occurs when the relative motion between transmitter and receiver changes the
signal frequency, affecting communication quality.

5. Statistical Multipath Channel Models

Models like Rayleigh and Rician fading statistically describe signal variations. These are used to
design robust wireless systems.

6. Narrowband and Wideband Fading Models

Narrowband models assume flat fading, while wideband models account for frequency-selective
fading due to delay spread.

7. Delay Spread and Coherence Bandwidth

 Delay Spread: Time difference between the arrival of the earliest and latest signal
components.
 Coherence Bandwidth: Frequency range over which the channel response remains
constant.

8. Coherence Time

Coherence time is the duration over which the channel response is stable, impacting Doppler
effects.

9. Flat and Frequency-Selective Fading

 Flat Fading: Affects all frequencies uniformly.

 Frequency-Selective Fading: Affects certain frequencies more, causing signal distortion.

10. Slow and Fast Fading

 Slow Fading: Occurs over larger distances due to shadowing.

 Fast Fading: Rapid signal changes due to multipath effects.

Unit 3: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

1. OFDM Transmitter and Receiver Structures

 Transmitter: Converts serial data to parallel streams, applies IFFT to generate

orthogonal subcarriers, adds a cyclic prefix to mitigate ISI, and modulates the signal.
 Receiver: Removes the cyclic prefix, applies FFT to separate subcarriers, and
demodulates data streams.
2. Diversity Receivers

 Selection Combining: Chooses the strongest signal from multiple paths.

 Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC): Combines signals with weights proportional to
their strength.

3. RAKE Receiver

RAKE receivers combine multipath components with appropriate delays, enhancing signal
reception in CDMA systems.

4. Equalization

Equalization compensates for channel distortions due to ISI and fading, ensuring reliable signal
recovery.

5. Transmit Diversity (Alamouti Scheme)

The Alamouti scheme is a space-time coding technique providing transmit diversity with simple
decoding, improving reliability without additional bandwidth.

Unit 4: MIMO and Space-Time Signal Processing

1. Spatial Multiplexing

MIMO systems transmit multiple data streams via separate antennas, increasing data rates
without additional spectrum.

2. Diversity/Multiplexing Tradeoff

A tradeoff exists between achieving high data rates (multiplexing) and improving reliability
(diversity).

3. Performance Measures

 Outage Probability: Likelihood of the signal falling below a threshold.

 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): Ratio of signal power to noise power, impacting quality.
 Symbol/Bit Error Rate (SER/BER): Probability of errors during data transmission.

4. Examples

 GSM: A 2G standard for voice and SMS.

 EDGE: Enhanced 2.5G technology with better data rates.
 GPRS: A packet-switched 2.5G technology for internet access.
 IS-95: A CDMA-based 2G standard.
 CDMA2000: A 3G standard with improved voice and data services.
 WCDMA: Part of 3G UMTS for high-speed data and multimedia services.