ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY REVIWER

PRELIM

REMINDERS: BLOOD PH RANGE – 7.35-7.45

POWER HOUSE CELL- MITOCHONDRION
3 IMPORTANT PARTS- CELL MEMBRANE, NUCLEUS, CYPTOPLASM
INSIDE THE CYPTOPLASM THERE IS ORGANELLES
EXTENSION- CILLIA, FLAGELLA, MICROVILLI

Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structures. The word anatomy means to
dissect or cut apart and separate the parts of the body for study
Anatomy can be studied at different levels.
1.Developmental anatomy studies the structural changes that occur between conception and
adulthood.
2. Embryology (em-bree-OL-oh-jee), a subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers changes from
conception to the end of the eighth week of development.
3. Cytology (sigh-TOL-oh-jee; cyto, cell) examines the structural features of cells, and
4. Histology (his-TOLoh-jee; hist, tissue) examines tissues, which are composed of cells and the
materials surrounding them.
5. Gross anatomy, the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope, can be
approached either systemically or regionally.

THE BASIC APPROACHES OF ANATOMY

System is a group of structures that have one or more common functions, such as the cardiovascular,
nervous, respiratory, skeletal, or muscular systems.
1. Systemic anatomy, the body is studied system by system.
2. Regional anatomy, the body is studied area by area. Within each region, such as the head, abdomen,
or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously

2 WAYS TO EXAMINE THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE

1. Surface anatomy involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structures deeper inside the
body. For example, the sternum (breastbone) and bulges from the ribs can be seen and palpated (felt)
on the front of the chest.
2. Anatomical imaging uses radiographs (x-rays), ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and
other technologies to create pictures of internal structures
Anatomical anomalies are physical characteristics that differ from the normal pattern. Anatomical
anomalies can vary in severity from relatively harmless to life-threatening.

Physiology is the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things.

There are two major goals when studying human physiology:
(1) examining the body’s responses to stimuli and
(2) examining the body’s maintenance of stable internal conditions within a narrow range of values in
a constantly changing environment.
Cellular physiology focuses on processes inside cells such as the manufacturing of substances, including
proteins
Systemic physiology focuses on the functions of organ systems.

LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
1 Chemical Level The structural and functional characteristics of all organisms are determined by their
chemical makeup. The chemical level of organization involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon,
interact and combine into molecules.
2 Cell Level are the basic structural and functional units of organisms, such as plants and animals. Most
cells contain smaller structures inside them, called organelles (OR-gah-nellz; little organs). Organelles
carry out particular functions, such as digestion and movement, for the cell.
3 Tissue Level A tissue (TISH-you) is a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. The
characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials determine the functions of the tissue. The many
tissues that make up the body are classified into four primary types: (1) epithelial, (2) connective, (3)
muscle, and (4) nervous.
4 Organ Level (OR-gan; a tool) is composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or
more common functions. For example, the heart, stomach, liver, and urinary bladder are all organs
(figure 1.2). 5 Organ System Level An organ system is a group of organs that together perform a
common function or set of functions. In this text, we consider eleven major organ systems: (1)
integumentary, (2) skeletal, (3) muscular, (4) nervous, (5) endocrine, (6) cardiovascular, (7) lymphatic, (8)
respiratory, (9) digestive, (10) urinary, and (11) reproductive.
5. Organ Systems LEVEL a group og oragn that work together to perform a function. There are 11 body
systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, nervous, endocrine,
cardiovascular, urinary, and reproductive. CLINICAL IMPACT Cadavers and the Law The study of human
bodies is the foundation of medical education, and for much of history, anatomists have used the bodies
of people who have died, called cadavers, for these studies.
6. Organism Level An organism is any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell,
such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human. The human organism is a network of organ
systems that are mutually dependent upon one another

SIX ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:

1. Organization refers to the specific interrelationships among the individual parts of an organism, and
how those parts interact to perform specific functions.
2. Metabolism (meh-TAB-oh-lizm) is the ability to use energy to perform other vital functions, such as
growth, movement, and reproduction. Human cells possess specialized proteins that can break down
food molecules to use as a source of energy. Refers to all chemical reactions taking place in the cell.
3. Responsiveness is an organism’s ability to sense changes in the external or internal environment and
adjust to those changes. Responses include actions such as moving toward food or water and moving
away from danger or poor environmental conditions such as extreme cold or heat. Organisms can also
make adjustments that maintain their internal environment. For example, if our body temperature rises,
sweat glands produce sweat, which can lower body temperature down to the normal range.
4. Growth refers to an increase in the size or number of cells, which produces an overall enlargement in
all or part of an organism, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells. For example, bones
grow when the number of bone cells increases and the bone cells become surrounded by mineralized
materials.
5. Development includes the changes an organism undergoes through time, beginning with fertilization
and ending at death. Development usually involves growth, but it also involves differentiation.
Differentiation involves changes in a cell’s structure and function from an immature, generalized state to
a mature, specialized state. For example, following fertilization, immature cells differentiate to become
specific types of cells, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These differentiated cells form tissues
and organs.
6. Reproduction is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Reproduction of cells allows for growth
and development.

HOMEOSTASIS (hoh-mee-oh-STAY-sis; homeo-, the same; -stasis, to stop) is the maintenance of a

relatively constant environment within the body. To achieve homeostasis, the body must actively
regulate body conditions that are constantly changing. As our bodies undergo their everyday processes,
we are continuously exposed to new conditions, both internally and externally. These changes in body
conditions are called variables because their values are not constant.
 Body temperature is a variable that increases when you are too hot and decreases when you are
too cold.
 The homeostatic mechanisms that maintain normal body temperature include sweating or
shivering to maintain body temperature near an ideal normal value, or set point.
 (b) Negative feedback is one of the mechanisms by which homeostasis is maintained. Receptors
signal the control center, which regulates the action of the effectors. In the example, body
temperature is too high, so sweating occurs. Negative feedback stops the sweating when the
body temperature returns to normal.
 (c) Positive feedback is also a type of mechanism that works to maintain homeostasis.
Receptors signal the control center that the cervix is being stretched, which results in the
control center sending signals to increase the contractions of the uterus. This cycle continues,
becoming stronger over time until the baby is born.

TWO 2 TYPES OF FEEDBACK LOOP

1. Negative-feedback mechanisms which maintain homeostasis. In everyday terms, the word negative is
used to mean “bad” or “undesirable.” In this context, negative means “to decrease.” . VERY COMMON
Negative feedback is when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted. Negative
feedback does not prevent variation but maintains variation within a normal range. The maintenance of
normal body temperature is an example of a negative feedback mechanism.

NEGATIVE-FEEDBACK MECHANISMS HAVE THREE COMPONENTS:

(1) A receptor (ree-SEP-tor), which monitors the value of a variable, such as body temperature, by
detecting stimuli;
(2) a control center, such as part of the brain, which determines the set point for the variable and
receives input from the receptor about the variable; and
(3) an effector (ee-FEK-ter), such as the sweat glands, which can adjust the value of the variable when
directed by the control center, usually back toward the set point. A changed variable is a stimulus
because it initiates a homeostatic mechanism.
Normal body temperature depends on the coordination of multiple structures, which are regulated by
the control center (the hypothalamus).
❶ Receptors in the skin monitor body temperature. If body temperature rises, the receptors send a
message to the control center.
❷ The control center compares the value of the variable against the set point.
❸ If a response is necessary, the control center will stimulate the effectors, the sweat glands, to
produce their response, which is secretion of sweat.
❹ Once the value of the variable has returned to the set point, the effectors do not receive any more
information from the control center. For body temperature, this means that secretion of sweat stops.

POSITIVE-FEEDBACK MECHANISMS occur when a response to the original stimulus results in the
deviation from the set point becoming even greater. In other words, positive means “increase.” At
times, this type of response is required to return to homeostasis. For example, during blood loss, a
chemical responsible for blood clot formation, called thrombin, stimulates production of even more
thrombin. In this way, a disruption in homeostasis is resolved through a positive-feedback mechanism.

TWO BASIC PRINCIPLES ABOUT HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS TO REMEMBER

(1) many disease states result from the failure of negative-feedback mechanisms to maintain
homeostasis, and
(2) some positive-feedback mechanisms can be detrimental instead of helpful.

Body Positions
Anatomical position refers to a person standing upright with the face directed forward, the upper limbs
hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward
 supine when lying face upward
 prone when lying face downward.
 The central region of the body consists of the head, neck, and trunk.
The trunk can be divided into three regions:
(1) the thorax, (2) the abdomen, and (3) the pelvis.
 The thorax is the chest cavity where the heart and lungs are located.
 The abdomen contains organs such as (1) the liver, (2) the stomach, and (3) the intestines.
 The pelvis contains the bladder and reproductive organs.
 The upper limb is divided into (1) the arm, (2) the forearm, (3) the wrist, and (4) the hand.
 the arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow, and the forearm extends from the elbow to
the wrist.
 The lower limb is divided into (1) the thigh, (2) the leg, (3) the ankle, and (4) the foot. The thigh
extends from the hip to the knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. Note that,
contrary to popular usage, the terms arm and leg refer to only a part of the limb.

PLANE
A plane divides, or sections, the body, making it possible to “look inside” and observe the body’s
structures

1. A sagittal (SAJ-ih-tal) plane separates the body or a structure into right and left halves. The word
sagittal means “the flight of an arrow” and refers to the way the body would be split by an arrow passing
anteriorly to posteriorly.
2. A median plane is a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into equal
right and left halves.
3. A transverse (horizontal) plane runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior
portions.
4. A frontal (coronal) (KOR-oh-nal; crown) plane divides the body into front (anterior) and back
(posterior) halves. For example, the coronal suture on the skull is located across the top, where a person
might wear a crown.

A longitudinal section is a cut along the length of the organ, similar to the cut along a hot dog bun.
A transverse section, or cross section, cuts completely through an organ, similar to cutting a hot dog or
banana into round pieces. If a cut is made diagonally across the long axis, it is called an oblique section.
Body Cavities
The body contains two types of internal cavities:
(1) the dorsal body cavity
(2) the ventral body cavity

The dorsal body encloses the organs of the nervous system, the brain and spinal cord. The two
subdivisions of the dorsal body cavity are (1) the cranial cavity, which houses the brain, and (2) the
vertebral canal, which houses the spinal cord. Both the brain and spinal cord are covered by membranes
called meninges

The ventral body cavity houses the vast majority of our internal organs, collectively referred to as the
viscera (VIS-er-ah; internal organs) (figure 1.11b and c). The ventral body cavity also has two major
subdivisions, which are (1) the thoracic cavity and (2) the abdominopelvic cavity.

The thoracic cavity is more superior to the abdominopelvic cavity and houses primarily the heart and
lungs, among other organs. This cavity is further subdivided into sections: (1) two lateral pleural cavities,
each of which encloses a lung, and are surrounded by the ribs, and (2) a medial mediastinum (MEE-dee-
ah-STIE-num; middle wall), which houses the heart and its major blood vessels, in addition to the
thymus, the trachea, and the esophagus.

The Abdominopelvic Cavity is enclosed by abdominal muscles and consists of (1) the more superior
abdominal cavity and (2) the more inferior pelvic cavity. The organs of the abdominopelvic cavity are
housed within the peritoneal (per-ih-toh-NEE-al; to stretch over) cavity. The abdominal cavity contains
the majority of the digestive organs, such as the stomach, the intestines, and the liver, in addition to the
spleen. The pelvic cavity continues below the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, urethra, rectum of
the large intestine, and reproductive organs.

Serous Membranes of the Ventral Body Cavity The walls of the body cavities and the surface of internal
organs are in contact with membranes called serous (SEER-us) membranes. These membranes are
double layered. The layer that lines the walls of the cavities is called the parietal (pah-RYE-eh-tal; wall)
serous membrane. The layer covering the internal organs (the viscera) is the visceral serous membrane.

The serous membranes are named for the specific cavity and organs they are in contact with. They
include:
 Pericardial Cavity. The pericardial cavity (peri-, around; cardi-, heart), containing the heart, is
housed in the mediastinum. The parietal serous membrane is called the parietal pericardium
and the visceral serous membrane is called the visceral pericardium. The space between the two
pericardial membranes is called the pericardial cavity and is filled with pericardial fluid
 2. Pleural Cavities. Each of the two pleural cavities (pleuron-, side of body, rib) houses a lung.
The parietal serous membrane lining the pleural cavities is called the parietal pleura, while the
visceral serous membrane covering the lungs is called the visceral pleura. The space between
the two pleural membranes is called the pleural cavity and is filled with pleural fluid.
 3. Peritoneal Cavity. The peritoneal cavity (peri-, around; -tonos-, stretched; stretched around)
houses many internal organs, such as the liver, the digestive organs, and the reproductive
 organs. The parietal serous membrane in the peritoneal cavity is called the parietal peritoneum.
The visceral serous membrane is called the visceral peritoneum. The space between the two
serous membranes is the specific location of the peritoneal cavity and is filled with peritoneal
fluid.

The following is a list of the conditions caused by inflammation of the serous membranes:
1. Pericarditis (PER-i-kar-DIE-tis; -itis, inflammation) is inflammation of the pericardium
2. Pleurisy (PLOOR-ih-see) is inflammation of the pleura.
3. Peritonitis (PER-ih-toe-NIGH-tis) is inflammation of the peritoneu

Chemicals make up the body’s structures, and the interactions of chemicals with one another are
responsible for the body’s functions. The processes of nerve impulse generation, digestion, muscle
contraction, and metabolism can all be described in chemical terms.

 matter, which is anything that occupies space and has mass.

 Mass is the amount of matter in an object, and
 weight is the gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass.
 element is the simplest type of matter having unique chemical properties. A list of the elements
commonly found in the human body appears
 atom (AT-om; indivisible) is the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical
characteristics of that element. An element is composed of atoms of only one kind.
 Isotopes are two or more forms of the same element that have the same number of protons and
electrons, but have a different number of neutrons. The most familiar isotopes are those that
are radioactive, which are used in nuclear medicine and other applications
 This level is the interaction between atoms to form molecules by either sharing or transferring
their outermost electrons. In doing so, these atoms form chemical bonds.
 For simplicity, the energy levels are often drawn as concentric rings, called electron shells,
around the nucleus
 The outermost shell is called the valence shell. The number of electrons in the valence shell
determines an atom’s chemical behavior. If an atom’s valence shell is not at its maximum, it will
form bonds with other atoms to achieve a full valence shell, called an octet
 most atoms follow the octet rule—the tendency of atoms to combine with other atoms until
each has 8 electrons (2 electrons for hydrogen) in its valence shell.
Atoms achieve an octet in one of two ways:
(1) by transferring electrons between atoms or
(2) by sharing electrons between atoms.
The fate of electrons as being either transferred or shared determines the type of chemical bond: ionic
or covalent
Electronegativity is the ability of the atom’s nucleus to pull electrons toward it.

The two major types of chemical bonds are ionic and covalent bonds.
 When this occurs, the numbers of protons and electrons are no longer equal, and a charged
particle called an ion (EYE-on) is formed.
  A covalent bond forms when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. The sharing of
electrons, rather than the transfer of electrons, occurs because the atoms have similar
electronegativities. The resulting combination of atoms is called a molecule

A chemical reaction is the formation or breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, ions, molecules, or
compounds. The substances that enter into a chemical reaction are called the reactants, and the
substances that result from the chemical reaction are called the products.

Adenosine triphosphate (ah-DEN-o-seen try-FOS-fate; ATP) is the most important molecule for storing
and providing energy in all living organisms. ATP consists of (1) adenosine (ribose with adenine) and (2)
three phosphate groups

CELLS AN TISSUES
Cells are commonly defined as “the smallest units of life,” meaning they have all the characteristics of
life.

. The following are four important functions performed by our body cells:
1. Cell metabolism and energy use. The chemical reactions that occur within cells are collectively
called cell metabolism. Energy released during metabolism is used for cell activities, such as the
synthesis of new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production, which helps maintain
body temperature
2. Synthesis of molecules. Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids. The different cells of the body do not all produce the same molecules.
Therefore, a cell’s structural and functional characteristics are determined by the types of
molecules the cell produces.
3. Communication. Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another. For example, nerve cells communicate with one another and
with muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract.
4. Reproduction and inheritance. Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the
individual. Specialized cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that genetic information to the
next generation

The cell membrane, or plasma (PLAZ-mah) membrane, is the outermost component of a cell. The cell
membrane encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary between material inside the cell and
material outside it. Substances outside the cell are called extracellular substances, and those inside the
cell are called cytoplasmic, or intracellular, substances. Besides enclosing the cell, the cell membrane has
other functions, including (1) supporting the cell contents, (2) acting as a selective barrier that
determines what moves into and out of the cell, and (3) playing a role in communication between
cells.
The cell membrane is primarily made up of two major types of molecules: (1) phospholipids and (2)
proteins. In addition, the membrane contains other molecules, such as (3) cholesterol and (4)
carbohydrates
Studies of the arrangement of molecules in the cell membrane have given rise to a model of its structure
called the fluid-mosaic model.
Passive membrane transport does not require the cell to expend energy. Active membrane transport
does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP. Passive membrane transport
mechanisms include (1) diffusion, (2) osmosis, and (3) facilitated diffusion.
Active membrane transport mechanisms include (1) active transport, (2) secondary active transport, (3)
endocytosis, and (4) exocytosis.