Chapter 1
Introduction to Human
Anatomy & Physiology
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Introduction
1. define basic terminologies related to Anatomy
and Physiology;
2. describe the organization of the human body;
3. apply the different anatomical terms to the body
parts;
4.describe the different physiologic processes; and
5. describe anatomical terminologies and body
planes.
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Anatomy
Ø derived from ancient Greek: Ana – ‘up’;
Tomia – ‘cutting,’ ‘dissect’
Ø study of the structure of the human body and
relationships between body parts
SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY
1. GROSS or MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY
– A type of anatomy that can be undertaken
WITHOUT a MICROSCOPE
2. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
– Requires the use of a MICROSCOPE (e.g.
LIGHT or PHASE-contrast microscope)
3. ULTRAMICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
– requires the use of TRANSMISSION
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM) or
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(SEM)
Sources: https://www.livescience.com/amp/14413-brain-images-portraits-mind.html; https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny- 4
ap1/?fbclid=IwAR1oUggsTt0d-sOCTq6aY301SLSkHDa7ToVnLBvZZRCE_YCPsXQqJuWCwkA
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• CYTOLOGY
– study of the CELLS which make up the
different tissues of the body
• HISTOLOGY
– microscopic study of the TISSUES; also
part of microscopic anatomy
• EMBRYOLOGICAL ANATOMY
– study of PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT.
• PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY
- study of STRUCTURAL CHANGE associated with
DISEASE 5
APPROACHES TO THE
STUDY OF ANATOMY
• SYSTEMIC ANATOMY
– Study of body by SYSTEMS(e.g. DIGESTIVE
System, REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• REGIONAL ANATOMY
– Study of the organization of the body by
specific REGIONS or areas(e.g. HEAD and
NECK) 6
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APPROACHES TO THE
STUDY OF ANATOMY
• SURFACE ANATOMY
– Study of external features (ex. bony projections),
which serve as landmarks for locating deeper
structures
• ANATOMICAL IMAGING
– Use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) to create pictures
of internal structures
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Physiology
Ø study of how the body parts come together to function
and keep the body alive
Ø occurs at many levels, including organisms, organ
systems, organ, cells, and biomolecules
“The complementarity of structure and function.”
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PHYSIOLOGY
• CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY
- Study of the functions of the cell
• SYSTEMIC PHYSIOLOGY
– Study of specific organ systems and how they
function (e.g. respiratory system; digestive
system; reproductive system; excretory system)
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Levels of Organization
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Major Organs of the Body
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The body's major organs include the brain, lungs, heart, liver, pancreas,
spleen, stomach, gallbladder, kidneys, large intestine, small intestines, 11
urinary bladder, and urethra.
Organ Systems
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Organ Systems
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
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Organ Systems
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
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Organ Systems
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
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Characteristics of Life
Organization
Ørefers to the specific relationship of the many individual parts
of an organism, from cell organelles to organs, interacting and
working together
Øliving things are highly organized; disruption of this organized
state can result in loss of function and death
Metabolism
Øis the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as
growth, movement, and reproduction
Øplants capture energy from sunlight to synthesize sugars (a
process called photosynthesis), and humans obtain energy from
food 16
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Characteristics of Life
Responsiveness
Øability of an organism to sense changes in the environment
and make the adjustments that help maintain its life
Øexample: if body temperature increases in a hot environment,
sweat glands produce sweat, which can lower body temperature
down to the normal level
Growth
Ørefers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism
Øcan result from an increase in cell number, cell size, or the
amount of substance surrounding cells
Øexample: bones grow when the number of bone cells increases
and the bone cells become surrounded by bone matrix 17
Characteristics of Life
Development
Øchanges an organism undergoes through time
Øhuman development begins when the egg is fertilized by the
sperm and ends with death
Øthe greatest developmental changes occur before birth, but many
changes continue after birth, and some continue throughout life
Øinvolves growth and differentiation
Differentiation
Øchange in cell structure and function from generalized to
specialized
Øexample: after fertilization, cells start to specialize to become
different cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells;
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these differentiated cells form tissues and organs.
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Characteristics of Life
Reproduction
Øformation of new cells or new organisms
Øwithout reproduction of cells, growth and tissue repair are
impossible
Øwithout reproduction of the organism, the species becomes
extinct
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Physiologic Processes
• Movement – change in position; motion
• Respiration – obtaining oxygen; removing carbon dioxide;
releasing energy from foods
• Digestion – breakdown of food substances into simpler forms
• Absorption – passage of substances through membranes and
into body fluids
• Circulation – movement of substances in body fluids
• Assimilation – changing of absorbed substances into
chemically different forms
• Excretion – removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions 20
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Maintenance of Life
• Life depends on five (5) environmental factors:
• Water
• Food
• Oxygen
• Heat
• Pressure
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Requirements of Organisms
• Water
- most abundant substance in body
- required for metabolic processes
- required for transport of substances
- regulates body temperature
• Food
- provides necessary nutrients
- supplies energy
- supplies raw materials
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Requirements of Organisms
• Oxygen (gas)
- one-fifth of air
- used to release energy from nutrients
• Heat
- form of energy
- partly controls rate of metabolic reactions
• Pressure
- application of force on an object
- atmospheric pressure – important for breathing
- hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing 23
Homeostasis
- maintain stable internal conditions no matter
what changes are occurring outside the
body
- monitored by the brain and nervous system
and regulated by the physiology and
activity of individual organs
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Homeostatic Control Mechanism: Body Temperature
• Homeostasis is the maintenance
of a variable, such as body
temperature, around an ideal
normal value, or set point.
• The value of the variable
fluctuates around the set point to
establish a normal range of
values.
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Homeostatic Control Mechanism: Body Temperature
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Homeostatic Control Mechanism
• monitors aspects of the internal environment and corrects as
needed. Variations are within limits.
• there are three (3) parts:
•Receptor - provides information about the stimuli
• Control Center - tells what a particular value should be
(called the set point)
• Effector - elicits responses that change conditions in the
internal environment
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Homeostatic Control Mechanism
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Ø a response to the INITIATING STIMULUS
Negative feedback
• when the response is OPPOSITE to the initiating stimulus
• Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body
• Corrects the set point
• Causes opposite of bodily disruption to occur, i.e. the ‘negative’
• Most common type of feedback loop
• Example: Increased production of HEAT by the body to oppose
the effect of COLD weather 28
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Positive feedback
• when the response REINFORCES the initial stimulus
increases (accelerates) the actions of the body
• short-lived
• do not require continuous adjustments
• Examples: blood clotting and child birth
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Anatomical Terminology
Ø provides precise description of features/structures in the body
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Source: Anatomical Terms - Drawn & Defined
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Anatomical Terminology:
Orientation and Directional Terms
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Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/8939488/
Anatomical Terminology:
Orientation and Directional Terms
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Source: Anatomical Terms - Drawn & Defined
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Anatomical Terminology:
Orientation and Directional Terms
(1)The navel is on
the anterial
(VENTRAL) part of
the body
(2)The heel is on the
posterior (DORSAL)
to the toes
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Source: Anatomical Terms - Drawn & Defined
Anatomical Terminology:
Orientation and Directional Terms
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Source: Anatomical Terms - Drawn & Defined
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Anatomical Terminology:
Orientation and Directional Terms
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Source: Anatomical Terms - Drawn & Defined
Anatomical Terminology:
Orientation and Directional Terms
What is the position of
your thumb relative to
your middle finger?
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Source: Anatomical Terms - Drawn & Defined
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Anatomical Terminology:
Orientation and Directional Terms
• The left hand and left
foot are IPSILATERAL
• The right elbow and left
knee are
CONTRALATERAL
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Body Sections or Planes
Planes of Section of the
Body:
(a) Planes of section through
the body are indicated by
“glass” sheets. Also shown
are actual sections through
(b) the head (viewed from
the right), (c) the abdomen
(inferior view; liver is on the
right), and (d) the hip
(anterior view).
(a) ©Eric Wise; (b,c,d) ©R.
T. Hutchings
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Body Sections or Planes
• Sagittal or Median – divides body
vertically into left and right parts
• Mid-sagittal – divides body into
equal left and right portions
• Transverse or Horizontal – divides
body into top and bottom portions
• Coronal or Frontal – runs vertically
from right to left and divides the
body into anterior and posterior
parts
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Body Sections or Planes
• Longitudinal - a cut along the length
of the organ
• Transverse or cross section - cuts
completely through an organ
• Oblique - a cut made diagonally
across the long axis 42
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Body Cavities
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Body Cavities
Thoracic cavity
•surrounded by the rib cage
and muscular diaphragm
•divided into right and left
parts by a center structure
called the mediastinum
(wall) that houses the heart,
thymus, trachea
Abdominal cavity
•bounded by the abdominal muscles and contains the stomach,
intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys
Pelvic cavity
•a small space enclosed by the pelvic bones and contains the
urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and internal 44
reproductive organs
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Serous Membranes
• Visceral layer – covers the internal
organ
• Parietal layer – lines the wall of the
cavity
Ø secretes fluid that fills the space
View of the serous membranes between the parietal and visceral
surrounding the lungs. The membranes
membrane in contact with the
lungs is the visceral pleura; the
membrane lining the wall of the Ø protect organs from friction
lung cavity is the parietal pleura. 45
Serous Membranes
(a) Frontal section showing the
parietal pericardium (blue),
visceral pericardium (red), and
pericardial cavity.
Ø pericardial cavity surrounds the heart
(b) Frontal section showing the
parietal pleura (blue), visceral
pleura (red), and pleural cavities.
Ø pleural cavities surround the lungs
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Serous Membranes
Ø peritoneal cavity surrounds certain
abdominal and pelvic organs
(c) Sagittal section through the abdominopelvic
cavity showing the parietal peritoneum (blue),
visceral peritoneum (red), peritoneal cavity,
mesenteries (purple), and retroperitoneal
organs.
Ø Mesenteries are parts of the peritoneum
that hold the abdominal organs in place
and provide a passageway for blood
vessels and nerves to organs.
(d) Photo of mesentery (green) in a cadaver
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