Introducción a la física subatómica:

The Weak interaction and EW model

Carlos Sandoval
Departamento de Física
Universidad Nacional de Colombia
2024-2

Introducción a la física subatómica

The Weak Interaction

• By the 1930’s it was clear there was a “weak” interaction

responsible for beta decay and other decays involving
Pauli’s neutrino:
! → #! + % " + '̅
( →µ+'
µ → % + 2'
• Fermi’s explanation was a 4-fermion contact interaction

• Where the coupling strength is the Fermi constant +#

Introducción a la física subatómica
The Weak Interaction

• Neutrino-neutron scattering in the Fermi theory

• The differential cross section
(remember the Born approximation):
$% '! (
$&
= () !
ℳ
• And the matrix element:

• So the differential cross section reads:

• Fermi theory breaks down at high energies

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Parity in QED and QCD

• It can be shown that the parity operator for the Dirac

spinors is the . * matrix:

• So the electron current in the %/ → %/ process,

transforms as:

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Parity in QED and QCD

• It can be shown that the parity operator for the Dirac

spinors is the . * matrix:

• So the electron current in the %/ → %/ process, transforms

as:

• The time component:

• The spatial component:
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Parity in QED and QCD

• It can be shown that the parity operator for the Dirac

spinors is the . * matrix:

• So the electron current in the %/ → %/ process, transforms

as:

• So the four-vector product of the QED matrix element:

remains unchanged
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Parity in QED and QCD

• So the four-vector product of the QED matrix element:

remains unchanged
• The QED matrix element is invariant under a Parity
transformation
• The same applies to the Hamiltonian and therefore,
Parity is conserved in QED

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Parity in QED and QCD

• So the four-vector product of the QED matrix element:

remains unchanged
• The QED matrix element is invariant under a Parity
transformation
• The same applies to the Hamiltonian and therefore,
Parity is conserved in QED
• The form of the QCD vertex is the same except for colour
factors: Parity is conserved in QCD

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Wu’s experiment

• In 1957 Wu and collaborators studied the beta decay of

polarised cobalt-60:

• For a fixed magnetic field, the nuclear magnetic moment

of the cobalt was aligned

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Wu’s experiment

• In 1957 Wu and collaborators studied the beta decay of

polarised cobalt-60:

• Electrons were detected at different angles with respect

to the direction of the field

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Wu’s experiment

• In 1957 Wu and collaborators studied the beta decay of

polarised cobalt-60:

• The rate at which electrons were emitted on either direction

of the field, should be the same (if parity were conserved)

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Wu’s experiment

• In 1957 Wu and collaborators studied the beta decay of

polarised cobalt-60:

• However, more electrons were observed in one direction –

Parity Violation of Weak Interactions

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Weak interaction structure

• From the observation of parity violation, it is clear the

weak interaction vertex must have a different form to the
QED and QCD vertices:

• We need a Lorentz Invariant Matrix element, and there

are only 5 such bilinear covariants :

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Chirality

• To introduce chirality, we define the matrix

• It can be shown that:

• Any Dirac spinor can be decomposed into left and right

handed chiral components through projection operators:

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Weak interaction structure

• The most general Lorentz Invariant form for the

interaction between a fermion and a boson is a linear
combination of the bilinear covariants
• If the boson has spin 1

where the current has been split into vector and axial
components

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Weak interaction structure

• The most general Lorentz Invariant form for the

interaction between a fermion and a boson is a linear
combination of the bilinear covariants
• If the boson has spin 1

where the current has been split into vector and axial
components
• Parity transformation for axial current:

• Time component:
• Spatial component:
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Weak interaction structure

• The vector and axial currents under a parity

transformation:

• The product of two vector or two axial currents is

invariant under parity, but not the product of vector and
axial currents
• This structure could therefore explain the parity violation
observed in the weak interaction

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Weak interaction structure

• Consider the inverse beta decay process:

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Weak interaction structure (V-A)

• Consider the inverse beta decay process:

not invariant under Parity

• From experiments, we know the weak
charged current due to the exchange of
W bosons has the vertex factor:

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Chiral structure of the weak interaction

• Any Dirac spinor can be decomposed into left and right

handed chiral components through projection operators:

• 0+ projects the right handed chiral

particle states and the left handed
chiral antiparticle states

• 0, projects the left handed chiral

particle states and the right handed
chiral antiparticle states

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Chiral structure of the weak interaction

• For the weak interaction vertex:

the only non-zero current for particle spinors involves

only left-handed chiral states

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Chiral structure of the weak interaction

• For the weak interaction vertex:

the only non-zero current for particle spinors involves

only left-handed chiral states
• For anti-particle spinors, PL projects the right-handed
chiral states, so only right handed chiral anti-particle
states interact with the charged weak interaction

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Chiral structure of the weak interaction

• Example:

allowed not allowed

• So Parity violation implies we see more electrons in one

direction than the opposite (like in Wu’s experiment)

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Chiral structure of the weak interaction

• Charge conjugation is also violated in the weak

interactions
• However: Charge conjugation AND Parity could* be
conserved
• This is called the combined CP symmetry

*CP violation is necessary to explain the difference in matter and anti-matter in the
Universe. QED and QCD conserve CP, so the only place for CP violation in the Standard
Model is the weak interaction. CP violation has been observed in meson systems, but this
is not sufficient to account for the matter-antimatter asymmetry in the Universe

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The W boson

• For massive bosons have an additional degree of freedom

of a longitudinal polarisation state:

so the Feynman rule for the propagator of the W boson:

• In the limit /( ≪ 2-
(
:

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Fermi theory revisited

• At low energies the propagator can be approximated by:

• This would correspond to an interaction that occurs at a

single point (Fermi theory):

• Including the V-A structure to account for parity violation:

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Fermi theory revisited

• At low energies the propagator can be approximated by:

• This would correspond to an interaction that occurs at a

single point (Fermi theory):

• Including the V-A structure to account for parity violation:

• And comparing to the full expression in the limit /( ≪ 2-

(
:

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Fermi theory revisited

• At low energies the propagator can be approximated by:

• This would correspond to an interaction that occurs at a

single point (Fermi theory)

• We can relate both coupling constants:

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Strength of the weak interaction

• The strength of the weak interaction is most precisely

determined from low-energy measurements
• (
Muon lifetime (2.( ≪ 2- ):

with the measurements of the muon mass and lifetime:

we can have a precise measurement of the Fermi constant:

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Strength of the weak interaction

• The strength of the weak interaction is related to the Fermi

constant by the mass of the W boson:

• The coupling constant itself is larger than the QED

constant
• However: the presence of the mass of the W boson in the
propagator, makes the weak interaction weaker than QED

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Lepton Universality

• Muons do not decay via QED (the photon does not change
flavour)
• Only the charged weak interaction changes lepton type

in principle the coupling to different

leptons could vary

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Lepton Universality

• Taus are sufficiently massive that they can decay into light
quarks

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Lepton Universality

• We can compare the lifetimes to obtain the ratio of the

couplings

• Measuring masses, lifetimes, and decay fractions:

• We get a ratio for the couplings:

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Lepton Universality Violation?

• LHCb experiment (2021): https://arxiv.org/abs/2103.11769

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Lepton Universality Violation? Not yet!

• LHCb experiment (2022): arXiv:2212.09153

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Weak interactions of quarks

• Consider the underlying process for beta decay

From observed decay rates, and

comparing to the lepton coupling:

• The coupling to 34 quarks is 5% smaller than the lepton

coupling

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Weak interactions of quarks

• It is also found that the decay rate of

is much smaller than for

• Suggesting 34 and 35 couplings are

not universal

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Weak interactions of quarks

Cabibbo hypothesis (1963):

• the 346 vertex carries a factor cos :/

• the 356 vertex carries a factor sin :/

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Weak interactions of quarks

Cabibbo hypothesis (1963):

• the 346 vertex carries a factor cos :/

• the 356 vertex carries a factor sin :/

• :/ ~13o to explain differences in decay

rates

• @ decay matrix element proportional

to cos :/

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Weak interactions of quarks

Cabibbo hypothesis (1963)

• This picture allowed for the

decay of the Kaon into muons
• But this calculation yields a
decay rate larger than observed

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Weak interactions of quarks

Cabibbo hypothesis (1963)

• This picture allowed for the

decay of the Kaon into muons
• But this calculation yields a
decay rate larger than observed

• Solution: GIM mechanism

(Glashow, Iliopoulos, Maiani -
1970) – Introduce a fourth quark

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Weak interactions of quarks

Cabibbo hypothesis (1963):

• the 346 vertex carries a factor cos :/

• the 356 vertex carries a factor sin :/

• the 4A6 vertex carries a factor −sin :/

• the 5A6 vertex carries a factor cos :/

• Cabibbo-GIM: weak interactions couple

to weak states that are related to the
mass states through the Cabibbo angle

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Quark mixing

• Cabibbo-GIM: weak interactions of quarks have the same

strength as the leptons, but the weak eigenstates of quarks
differ from the mass eigenstates

• The W bosons couple to the weak eigenstates:

• Related to the physical mass eigenstates:

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Quark mixing

• Cabibbo-GIM: weak interactions of quarks have the same

strength as the leptons, but the weak eigenstates of quarks
differ from the mass eigenstates

• At the time the charm quark had not been discovered!

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CKM matrix

• The Cabibbo-GIM mechanism can be extended to three

generations:

which is known as the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM)

matrix
• The weak charged current vertices are then:

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CKM matrix

• If the down-type quark is the adjoint spinor

in the matrix element, the CKM element is the
complex conjugate
• The CKM matrix is unitary and can be written
in terms of 3 rotation angles and a complex
phase

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CKM matrix

• From nuclear @ decay:

• From decay:

• Similarly, from B meson decays:

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CKM matrix

• From D meson decays :

• From semi-leptonic B meson decays:

• From neutrino-nucleon scattering:

• For the top:

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CKM matrix

• The CKM matrix is unitary, so:

• Summarising:

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CKM matrix

• Between the same family: Cabibbo allowed

• Between quarks differing one family: Cabibbo suppressed

• Between quarks differing two families: Doubly Cabibbo

suppressed

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W-pair production

• Since W bosons are charged (EM charge), they couple to the

photon
• W pairs can be produced in electron-positron colliders or
hadron colliders

• However: the cross section diverges if only these diagrams

are considered
• An additional gauge boson: the neutral Z boson

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W-pair production

• Since W bosons are charged (EM charge), they couple to the

photon
• W pairs can be produced in electron-positron colliders or
hadron colliders

• An additional gauge boson: the neutral Z boson

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W-pair production

• Since W bosons are charged (EM charge), they couple to the

photon
• W pairs can be produced in electron-positron colliders or
hadron colliders
• An additional gauge boson: the neutral Z boson

• This only works if the couplings

are all related:
Electroweak Unification

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Weak interaction gauge group

• QED and QCD are associated to U(1) and SU(3) local gauge
symmetries
• The charged weak interaction can be associated with an
SU(2) local gauge symmetry:

• 3 gauge fields: 60, 6(, 61

• The wave function must be a doublet:
• However: the weak interaction couples only to LH particles
and RH anti-particles
• So RH particles and LH anti-particles are put in singlets
(remain unaffected by local gauge transformation)

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Weak interaction gauge group

• QED and QCD are associated to U(1) and SU(3) local gauge
symmetries
• The charged weak interaction can be associated with an
SU(2)L local gauge symmetry

• We get an interaction term:

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Weak interaction gauge group

• The weak charged current corresponding to the exchange

of the physical W bosons is:

• And the W bosons are linear combinations of 60, 6(:

• The weak current then:

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Weak interaction gauge group

• The weak charged current corresponding to the exchange

of the physical W bosons is:

• And the W bosons are linear combinations of 60, 6(:

• Explicitly:

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Weak interaction gauge group

• The symmetry of the weak interaction results in the charged

weak currents:

with the already familiar V-A structure

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Weak interaction gauge group

• The symmetry of the weak interaction results in the charged

weak currents:

with the already familiar V-A structure

• The third gauge boson implies a neutral current:

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Electroweak unification

• It would be natural to assume the weak neutral current 61

corresponds to the Z boson
• However: the Z boson does couple to RH particles and LH
anti-particles
• Also, W and Z bosons would have the same coupling
strength – not seen experimentally
• The solution: Unify QED and the weak force – Electroweak
model

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• The Glashow, Weinberg and Salam model: EM and weak

interactions as different manifestations of a single unified
electroweak force (Nobel Prize 1979)
• The local U(1) symmetry of QED is replaced by a local U(1)Y
symmetry (weak hypercharge):

• Same form as the QED interaction term:

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• The Glashow, Weinberg and Salam model: EM and weak

interactions as different manifestations of a single unified
electroweak force (Nobel Prize 1979)
• The local U(1) symmetry of QED is replaced by a local U(1)Y
symmetry (weak hypercharge):

• The photon and the Z boson can be written as combinations

of the neutral gauge bosons:

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• The photon and the Z boson can be written as combinations

of the neutral gauge bosons:

• Where we have introduced a parameter, the weak mixing

angle :-

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• The photon and the Z boson can be written as combinations

of the neutral gauge bosons:

• Where we have introduced a parameter, the weak mixing

angle :-
• The currents for the D and photon read:

implying the couplings for the weak and EM interactions are

related

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• Consider the electron and the neutrino interactions:

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• Consider the electron and the neutrino interactions:

• The EM interaction couples to left and right components,

and only to the electron (not the neutrino):

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• Consider the electron and the neutrino interactions:

• The EM interaction couples to left and right components,

and only to the electron (not the neutrino):

• Comparing to the GWS model currents:

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• Comparing to the GWS model currents:

we find the relations between the coupling constants

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• We find the relations between the coupling constants

• If we write the weak hypercharge for fermions as:

• For electrons:
• For neutrinos:
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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• If we write the weak hypercharge for fermions as:

• For electrons:
• For neutrinos:
• So we have:
• Both should be equal since they are in the same doublet:

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• The factor 2 is conventional

• E2" = E3" = −1 and we can find a relationship between weak
and EM couplings:

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• Once the couplings match the EM couplings, the couplings

with the D boson are fixed:

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• And the D boson current:

• So the D boson couples to left and right handed particles but

not equally

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• The D boson current can also be written in vector-axial

form:

• D boson interaction vertex:

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Electroweak model (GWS model)

• D boson interaction vertex:

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Evidence for the GWS Model

• Discovery of Neutral
Currents (1973): Only
possible Feynman diagram
(no W± diagram). Indirect
evidence for Z.

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Evidence for the GWS Model

• First direct observation in ##̅

collisions at √5 = 540 GeV via
decays into ##̅ → D + G (1983)

• Precision measurements
(LEP):

UA1 Experiment at CERN Used

Super Proton Synchrotron (now
part of LHC)

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The weak Neutral Current vertex

• The Z boson does not change flavour

• The Z coupling is a mixture of EM and weak couplings –
(
depends on sin :-

So far in the model the gauge bosons remain massless

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LEP

• Large Electron Positron collider at CERN (1989-2000)

• Designed as a Z and W boson factory

• Highest energy % !% " collider ever

built: 5 = 90-209 GeV
• Circumference: 27 km (LEP tunnel used for the LHC)
• The 4 experiments combined: 16 × 104 Z events,
30 × 101 W events

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Typical Z events

!!!" → # → !!!" ! ! ! " → # → $! $"

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Z resonance

• We already calculated the QED process

• The matrix elements:

• The QED process dominates at low centre of mass

energy (/( = 5)
• In the region 5~25 the Z-boson process dominates

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Z resonance

• The Z boson is not a stable particle: propagator modified

• And the cross section is proportional to:

Breit-Wigner
resonance
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Z resonance

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Z resonance

• Below 40 GeV: QED process

dominates
• Between 50 and 80 GeV:
contributions from both
processes
• Around the resonance: Z
boson process dominates
• Away from the resonance:
both processes of the same
order of magnitude (EW
unification)

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Z production cross section

• The cross section calculation around the resonance would

only need the Z boson contribution

with the corresponding vector and

axial couplings to the Z boson
• The rest of the procedure is similar to the QED calculation
• Around the resonance, the masses of the leptons can be
ignored
• In this scenario, the helicity and chiral states are the same

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Z production cross section

• Analogous to our previous calculations, averaging over the

initial state spin configurations we can obtain the differential
cross section:

• And the total cross section:

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Z production cross section

• The cross section can be expressed in terms of the partial

decay rates of the Z boson:

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Z production cross section

• The cross section calculation around the resonance would

only need the Z boson contribution

• The cross section for other final state fermions can be

obtained replacing the partial decay rates into muons with
the corresponding partial decay rates:

• The maximum value for the cross section:

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Z production cross section

• The cross section calculation around the resonance would

only need the Z boson contribution

• The maximum value for the cross section:

• The cross section falls to half the maximum value at:

• So the total decay rate is the width of the cross-section
distribution

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Z boson decay (homework)

• The Z boson decay will be very important

when comparing to experimental results
• The Z boson couples to both left-handed
and right-handed particles:

with: , and averaging over the 3 spin

states of the Z:

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Z boson decay (homework)

• The Z boson decay will be very important

when comparing to experimental results
• The Z boson couples to both left-handed
and right-handed particles:

and in the C.M. frame:

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Z mass measurement

• In practice, initial state radiation diagrams should be

included
• This reduces the centre of mass energy of the collision and
smears out the resonance

• At LEP, the mass of the Z boson and its decay width were
measured by measuring the cross section for
at different centre-of-mass energies

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Z mass measurement

• Mass of the Z boson

• Total decay width
• Peak cross-section

• Measured with high

level precision

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Number of generations

• The Z boson couples to all fermions

• The total decay width has contributions from all fermions

• If there were more generations, the decay width of the Z

boson would be affected by it

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Number of generations

• The Z boson couples to all fermions

• The total decay width has contributions from all fermions

• If there were more generations, the decay width of the Z

boson would be affected by it
• The decay width to fermions can be calculated using the
vertex coupling:

• In particular for neutrinos:

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Number of generations

• The Z boson couples to all fermions

• The total decay width has contributions from all fermions

• If there were more generations, the decay width of the Z

boson would be affected by it

measured calculated

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Number of generations

• The Z boson couples to all fermions

• The total decay width has contributions from all fermions

• If there were more generations, the decay width of the Z

boson would be affected by it

• And from the cross section peak of the Z resonance:

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Number of generations

• The Z boson couples to all fermions

• The total decay width has contributions from all fermions

• If there were more generations, the decay width of the Z

boson would be affected by it

• And from the cross section peak of the Z resonance:

measure

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Number of generations

• The Z boson couples to all fermions

• The total decay width has contributions from all fermions

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Number of generations

• Most likely, only 3 generations of fermions

• Universality of lepton couplings
• Calculated cross section
assumes 3 colours

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Weak mixing angle

• The weak mixing angle relates all couplings in the EW

model and is therefore a fundamental parameter
• It can be measured through the ratio between vector and
axial couplings:

For charged leptons:

• At LEP this could be measured by measuring the forward-

backward asymmetry of leptons produced

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Weak mixing angle

• At LEP this could be measured by measuring the forward-

backward asymmetry of leptons produced

• The cross section has the form:

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Weak mixing angle

• At LEP this could be measured by measuring the forward-

backward asymmetry of leptons produced

• The cross section has the form:

if the couplings were the same, K would be zero and the

angular distribution would have the same form as in QED
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Weak mixing angle

• At LEP this could be measured by measuring the forward-

backward asymmetry of leptons produced

where the forward and backward cross sections can be

obtained integrating in different hemispheres:

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Weak mixing angle

• At LEP this could be measured by measuring the forward-

backward asymmetry of leptons produced

where the forward and backward cross sections can be

obtained integrating in different hemispheres:

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Weak mixing angle

• At LEP this could be measured by measuring the forward-

backward asymmetry of leptons produced

where the forward and backward cross sections can be

obtained integrating in different hemispheres:

1
• In terms of the coupling constants: L67 = MM#
8 9 9

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Weak mixing angle

• At LEP the cleanest way of measuring L67 is in lepton final

states

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Weak mixing angle

• At LEP the cleanest way of measuring L67 is in lepton final

states

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Weak mixing angle

• At LEP the cleanest way of measuring L67 is in lepton final

states

• Combining all measurements:

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W bosons at LEP

• W bosons were produced in pairs at LEP

leptonic semi-leptonic hadronic

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W bosons at LEP

• W bosons were produced in pairs at LEP

leptonic semi-leptonic hadronic

• We know the cross section is proportional to the decay

rates, so we can measure the branching fractions
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W bosons at LEP

• We know the cross section is proportional to the decay

rates, so we can measure the branching fractions

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W bosons at LEP

• We know the cross section is proportional to the decay

rates, so we can measure the branching fractions

• From the EW Model:

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W bosons at LEP

• We know the cross section is proportional to the decay

rates, so we can measure the branching fractions

• From the EW Model:

Introducción a la física subatómica

W boson mass and width

• The W-pair production at LEP is not a resonant process, like

the Z boson production
• The mass and width can be obtained
through direct reconstruction of the
invariant masses of the W decays

Introducción a la física subatómica

W mass loop corrections

• When comparing to the precise measurements from LEP,

higher order corrections must be taken into account
• For example, the W mass has corrections related to the top
quark and the Higgs boson

• The measurements from LEP for the EW parameters,

together with the quantum loop effects, predict a top quark
mass of 175 ± 11 GeV…
Introducción a la física subatómica
The Top quark

• The top quark is the “heaviest” fundamental particle we

know
• It could not be observed at LEP, it was discovered at the
Tevatron in 1994

Introducción a la física subatómica

The TeVatron

• It is possible to achieve higher centre of mass energies

with hadron colliders than with % !% " colliders
• They are central in the production of new heavy particles
• Underlying process: parton-parton scattering

TeVatron (1987-2010) • Located at Fermilab, Chicago, USA

• pUp collisions at 5 = 1.8 TeV
• Two main experiments:
CDF and D0

Introducción a la física subatómica

The Top quark

• The top quark is the “heaviest” fundamental particle we

know
• It could not be observed at LEP, it was discovered at the
Tevatron in 1994
• It has a short lifetime and decays before hadronisation
• It decays almost exclusively into a W boson and a K quark
• At hadron colliders it is easier to look for the semi-leptonic
channel:

Introducción a la física subatómica

The Top quark

• At hadron colliders it is easier to look for the semi-leptonic

channel
• First observation of top quark (CDF)

Introducción a la física subatómica

The Top quark

• To measure the top quark mass we reconstruct the invariant

mass of its decay products (as with the W)

Tevatron average result:

Introducción a la física subatómica

Summary

• The charged weak current has a V-A

structure
• W boson coupling to leptons constant
(lepton universality)

• W boson coupling to quarks depends on CKM matrix

• The W boson always changes quark flavour
• Mixing between different families can occur but less
likely
• Parity and Charge conjugation is violated by the charged
weak current: only couples to LH particles (RH anti-particles)
Introducción a la física subatómica
Summary

• The Z boson does not change flavour

• The Z coupling is a mixture of EM and weak couplings –
(
depends on sin :-

Introducción a la física subatómica

Summary

• LEP made some impressive precise tests of the EW Model:

• These measurements are consistent with the relations

between constants established in the EW model
• The model works! (we are missing a way of giving mass to
the W and Z)
• The top quark discovered at the Tevatron completes the
spectrum of quarks:
• This value is as predicted by the quantum loop corrections
of the EW model – impressive!
Introducción a la física subatómica
Summary

• Top mass world combination

*CERN-LPCC-2023-02

Introducción a la física subatómica

Summary

Top mass vs. W boson mass

* Eur.Phys.J.C 74 (2014) 3046

* SCIENCE - 7 Apr 2022 - Vol 376, Issue 6589

Introducción a la física subatómica

Summary

Top mass vs. W boson mass 2023

* ATLAS-CONF-2023-004

Introducción a la física subatómica