2024/2025

PARTICLE
PHYSICS
:: weak interaction | W

Prof. N. Leonardo
Standard Model = Gauge theory
with symmetry group:

SU(3) ⊗ SU(2) ⊗ U(1)

So far, we’ve studied QED.
so far: QED interaction
• introduced QED Feynman rules, to get amplitudes
• summed over helicities to get rates/cross-sections
• angular shape of cross sections (angular momentum)
• inspected the chiral structure of QED (same for QCD)

focus for today: introduce weak interaction

• parity violation and V-A theory
• weak charged current (W±)
• quark mixing and CKM matrix

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 Calculus of (QED) processes: a summary

Feynman diagrams ➡ Feynman rules ➡ Amplitudes ➡ … ➡ Cross sections

spinors, ɣ-matrices kinematics

ultra-relativistic limit - component by component

E≫m and in CoM - helicity expressions (currents)
- traces*
s
t
u
example
annihilation
process (s-channel)

with helicity currents

∯

with traces method

traces of γ matrices

m→0

CoM
 Standard Model gauge symmetry group:

SU(3) ⊗ SU(2) ⊗ U(1)

Today, we introduce the Weak interaction.
• QED
‣ U(1), 1 group generator
‣ has a single gauge boson: the photon
‣ the photon is massless and has no charge (abelian)

• QCD
‣ SU(3), 8 group generators
‣ has 8 gauge bosons: the gluons
‣ the gluons are massless and carry color (non-abelian), self-interact

• Weak
‣ SU(2), 3 group generators
‣ has 3 gauge bosons: leading to the W± and Z0
‣ the week bosons are massive and carry weak charges, self-interact
‣ it does stranger things eg it couples different (families of) particles
‣ and (unlike QED and QCD) it violates parity symmetry
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gauge principle, revisited
the gauge principle (a summary)
• QED arises from U(1) local phase transformations
→ → →

→ ⟵ QED interaction vertex

1 gauge boson, Aμ
the gauge principle (a summary)
• QED arises from U(1) local phase transformations
→ → →

→ ⟵ QED interaction vertex

1 gauge boson, Aμ
• QCD arises from SU(3)
λa: the 8 (3x3) Gell-Mann matrices
(generators of SU(3) symmetry: acts on colour space)

→ ⟵ QCD interaction vertex

8 gauge bosons, Aaμ

• …

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the gauge principle (a summary)
• QED arises from U(1) local phase transformations
→ → →

→ ⟵ QED interaction vertex

1 gauge boson, Aμ
• QCD arises from SU(3)
λa: the 8 (3x3) Gell-Mann matrices
(generators of SU(3) symmetry: acts on colour space)

→ ⟵ QCD interaction vertex

8 gauge bosons, Aaμ

• Weak interaction arises from SU(2)

σa: the 3 (2x2) Pauli matrices
(generators of SU(2) symmetry: acts on avour space)

⟵ “SU(2) interaction vertex”

→
3 gauge bosons, Waμ

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SU(2): the weak interaction
• the gauge symmetry speci es the form of the interaction
‣ one term for each of the 3 generators of SU(2)

→
• charged current W+/W- interaction
‣ linear combination of W1, W2
• the W± interaction current terms
• with e.g.

W+ W- W3

charged neutral current

currents (save for later)

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so, all similar enough…

• but with a remarkable difference

• and that comes not from formalism, but from experiment:

• unlike QED and QCD, weak interactions violate parity

• and that imposes a different structure for the weak current

• while QED and QCD are associated with vector currents

• the weak interactions are not … (for SU(2), it’s instead)

‣ ➥ as we’ll show next!

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Fermi theory
4-point interaction
• the weak interaction in nature arises
from the decay
‣ all fermions feel the weak interaction
‣ when present, strong and e.m. dominate analogy with QED
‣ neutrinos feel only the weak interaction
• 4-point interaction model
‣ based on the model of e.m. interaction
‣ proposed by Fermi with strength GF
• charged current
4-point model
‣ hadronic/leptonic currents change charge by1
• vector current
‣ in analogy with QED:
• most general form for 4-point interaction

→
15
→ 1
 Bilinear covariants
• Lorentz Invariance of the matrix element severely restricts the
form of the vertices of any possible interaction
• there are only 5 possible combinations of two spinors and gamma
matrices that form LI currents: bilinear co-variants
type form # components # ɣ-matrices spin
SCALAR 1 0 0
PSEUDOSCALAR 1 4 0
VECTOR 4 1 1
AXIAL VECTOR 4 3 1
TENSOR 6 2 2
‣ just as any 2x2 complex matrix can be written in terms of {1, σi}
‣ the set {1,ɣ5,ɣμ, ɣμɣ5,σμν≣ɣμɣν-ɣνɣμ} of 16 matrices forms a basis for the
space of 4x4 complex matrices
• the most general form of the 4-point weak interaction
operators Oi, Oj of form S,P,V,A,T
coe cients Cij
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V-A parity violation + spin-1

• we'll see that we need to modify Fermi’s pure vector coupling to

the famous V-A interaction
• for neutron decays there is complication to test V-A structure
‣ as neutron and proton are not point particles

‣ obtain but fundamental interaction is pure V-A

• similar to the process e+e-→μ+μ- in QED, the muon decay process
μ-→e-νeνμ is the benchmark example of weak interaction process

)
‣ with the corresponding matrix element

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parity
Intrinsic parity of Dirac particles
• for a spinor, parity transformation
• is achieved with

pre-multiplying DE with ɣ0
using x’=-x
and

• DE solutions for particle/antiparticle at rest

‣ particles and antiparticles have opposite parity

‣ convention: particles chosen to have positive parity

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scalars and vectors under parity
Scalars and vectors present di erent
behaviours under the parity operation

• position vector
• vectors transform as the coordinates

• pseudovectors transform as ordinary

vectors except for parity

• true scalars remain invariant under parity

• while pseudoscalars change sign

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Parity conservation in QED and QCD
• consider the QED process e-q→e-q e– e–

• the matrix element may be expressed

q q

• as product of electron and quark currents

• under parity transformation:

‣ check for adjoint spinor:

• currents therefore transform as

‣

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• check the components of the transformed 4-vector current
0: since

k=1,2,3: since

‣ ie space-like components change sign, time-like component does not

‣ ie the 4-current behave as a (true) vector

• the ME is the scalar product of two (4-)vector ➥ it’s a (true) scalar

• ie the QED matrix elements are parity invariant

‣ the QCD vertex has the same form, and are thus invariant too

• ➥ Parity is conserved in QED and QCD

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Parity violation in β-decay
• recall transformation under parity
‣ vectors change sign

‣ axial vectors do not change sign

• Experimentally:
‣ Wu et al studied beta decay of
polarised cobalt-60 nuclei
‣ electrons emitted preferentially in
direction opposite to applied eld
more e- in wrt
• can thus conclude that
‣ Parity is violated in weak interaction If parity were conserved:
‣ weak interaction vertex cannot be expect equal rate for producing e– in directions
along and opposite to the nuclear spin.
‣ weak current ≠ But observed different rate.
Thus parity is not conserved in the process.
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V-A
 V-A structure of the weak interaction
• the most general form for the interaction between a fermion and
a boson is a linear combination of bilinear covariants
• for an interaction corresponding to the exchange of a spin-1
particle, should be linear combination of vector and axial-vector
• the form for weak interaction is determined from experiment
e–
‣ Vector - Axial-vector νe

V – A

• can this account for parity violation?

‣ rst con rm parity transformation of a pure axial-vector current

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• pure vector and pure axial-vector transform in opposite ways
axial-vector

vector

• for the matrix element

• combination of two axial-vector currents similar to 2 vectors (recall)

• ie parity is conserved for both pure vector or pure axial-vector

• but combination of vector and axial-vector

‣ changes sign under parity — can give parity violation

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• consider a general combination of vector and axial-vector

• gives for the ME

• verify parity transformation for this scalar product

• if either gA or gV is zero (i.e. pure V or pure A), parity is conserved

‣ relative strength of parity violation part
‣ maximal parity violation for V-A (or V+A)

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helicity structure in weak interaction
chiral structure in QED (reminder)
• introduced the chiral projection operators

• in ultra-relativistic limit chiral states correspond to helicity states

• any spinor can be decomposed as

• QED vertex may be then expressed in terms of chiral states

…
➚
• it conserves chirality

• in the ultra-relativistic limit

only two helicity
combinations are non-zero
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chirality embedded in weak interaction
• the charged current (W±) weak current vertex is
• since projects out left-handed chiral particle states
‣ also recall:
• writing
‣ ➡
• only the left-handed chiral components of particle spinors
and the right-handed chiral components of anti-particle spinors
participate in the charged current weak interactions
• at very high energy the LH chiral components are helicity
eigenstates
LEFT-HANDED PARTICLES
Helicity = -1

RIGHT-HANDED ANTI-PARTICLES
Helicity = +1

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• in ultra-relativistic limit only left-handed particles and right-handed
anti-particles participate in the charged current weak interaction
‣ eg in this limit, the only possible electron-neutrino interactions are
e– νe
νe e+ νe

e–

• helicity dependence of weak interaction parity violation

‣ e.g. for the process
‣

RH anti-particle LH particle RH particle LH anti-particle

Valid weak interaction Does not occur

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pion decay ?

Pion parity:
Determined experimentally from pion capture by deuteron;
spin S: 0+1→1/2+1/2
ang. mom. L : 0→1 →

• charged pion decay ?

q ν

q l
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helicity in weak interaction: pion decay
• consider the decay of charged pions

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helicity in weak interaction: pion decay
• consider the decay of charged pions
experimentally measure:

‣ could have expected decay to electron to dominate, given larger phase space…

• …

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helicity in weak interaction: pion decay
• consider the decay of charged pions
experimentally measure:

‣ could have expected decay to electron to dominate, given larger phase space…

• consider the decay in pion rest frame

‣ pion is spin zero ➡ spins of μ and ν are opposite
‣ weak interactions only couples to RH chiral anti-particle states
‣ neutrinos are almost massless ➡ ν must be in RH helicity state
‣ angular momentum conservation ➡ μ emitted in RH helicity state

‣ but only left-handed chiral particle states participate in weak int.

‣ ie if muon (and electron) would be massless, decays would be forbidden!
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helicity vs chirality
• right-handed helicity spinor • left-handed chiral projection

• project out LH and RH chiral component of the RH helicity state

➝0
in the limit

• hence

RH Helicity RH Chiral LH Chiral

• in the limit (RH) chiral and helicity eigenstates are the same
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• although only LH chiral particles participate in the weak interaction,
the contribution from RH helicity states is not necessary zero
• back to our pion decay

mν ≈ 0: mμ ≠ 0: RH Helicity has
RH Helicity ≡ RH Chiral LH Chiral component

• expect matrix element to be proportional to LH chiral component

of RH helicity electron/muon spinor
Exercise: show this
from kinematics of pion decay at rest
hints:

‣ hence, as electron mass is much smaller than pion (and muon) mass,
the decay . is heavily suppressed

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weak (charged) currents & propagator
SU(2)L: weak charged current
• the weak wave functions have 2 components (ie 2 spinors)
‣ in analogy with isospin, are represented by weak isospin
• fermions are placed in isospin doublets, eg:
• CC weak interaction only couples to LH particles (RH antiparticles)
‣ hence only LH particles (RH antiparticles) in weak doublets:

‣ RH particles (LH antiparticles) are placed in weak isospin singlets

RH/LH refer to chiral states

‣ the charged current terms can be expanded, e.g for

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the weak charged current propagator
• the (charged current) propagator is different from QED and QCD
in that it is mediated by massive W bosons (~80.3 GeV)
• this results in a more complicated form of the propagator
‣ denominator: ; need to consider polarisation in numerator

• W± boson propagator

spin 1 W±

( see Thomson appendix D4 for a derivation)

• in the limit where q2 is small compared to mW=80.3GeV

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strength of weak interaction
• comparing 4-point amplitude
• with W-mediated amplitude
• which in the limit becomes
• hence ➥ Still usually use to express
strength of weak interaction

• GF precisely measured from muon decay

• together with measurement of W mass
‣ hence

• intrinsic strength of weak interaction is not weak!

‣ it is similar to, but larger, than the e.m. interaction
‣ it is the massive gauge boson in propagator which makes it appear weak
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muon and tau decays
• consider muon decay
• matrix element (with ) is

• evaluating 3-body decay would obtain

‣ and with

• but the τ can decay to a number of nal states

• can relate partial decay width to total decay width and so lifetime

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Lepton Flavour Universality (LFU)
• predict for μ,τ lifetimes:
• using measured values

• and similarly
• indicating the weak charged current is same for all lepton vertices

Charged Current Lepton Universality ☆

ν-q scattering
neutrino-quark scattering
• consider the process θ
q
‣ that occurs in νμ-proton DIS p X

• propagator in limit
• Feynman rules give
⟵ taking LFU
• consider limit where muon and quark masses can be neglected
‣ in this limit hecility states are equivalent to chiral states
for and

• as weak interaction ‘conserves helicity’ only ≠0 matrix element is

☚ in ultra-relativistic limit
only LH particle states
participate in weak interaction

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• the matrix element can be evaluated, going to νμ-p CoM frame

• for a massless, LH helicity particle spinor

• here with
• get
• could now calculate the currents component by component

• …

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• in alternative use the relevant helicity current expressions

• to obtain

• for the matrix element

• no angular dependence — isotropic

?
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• in alternative use the relevant helicity current expressions
from
Lecture 9

• to obtain

• for the matrix element

• no angular dependence — isotropic

‣ could have anticipated, since this helicity
combination (spins anti-parallel) has
. ➥ no preferred polar angle

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cross section
• for computing the cross section
‣ 2-body decay, relativistic limit
• as always need to sum/average over possible helicities
‣ here only 1 possible spin combination (LL➝LL)
‣ only 2 possible initial state combinations (neutrino is always LH)
• yielding the spin-averaged ME squared
☚ factor of 2: half of the time the quark will be
in a RH state and won’t participate in the
charged current weak interaction
• the differential cross section

• total cross section, integrating over dΩ

LI, any frame
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antineutrino-quark scattering
• consider fermion-antifermion scattering

• in ultra-relativisitic limit only LH chiral particles and RH chiral

anti-particles participate in the charged current weak interaction

• can obtain in similar fashion as for νμu

• angular dependence

?
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antineutrino-quark scattering
• consider fermion-antifermion scattering

• in ultra-relativisitic limit only LH chiral particles and RH chiral

anti-particles participate in the charged current weak interaction

• can obtain in similar fashion as for νμu

• angular dependence from angular momentum

‣ integrating over solid angle
‣

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summary
• considering all (anti)neutrino-(anti)quark scattering combinations

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weak interaction of quarks
Cabibbo hypothesis
• few issues found on the quark sector
‣ slightly different values of GF
‣ found for μ-decay and β-decay
• certain hadron decays found to be suppressed

• both issues addressed by Cabibbo hypothesis (1963)

‣ weak eigenstates are different from mass eigenstates
‣ weak interactions for quarks have same strength as for leptons
‣ but u-quark couples to linear combination of s and d

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GIM mechanism
• if weak interaction couples u to both d and s, decay is allowed:

d
s ‣historically, the observed branching
was much smaller than predicted

‣ led GIM (Glashow, Illiopoulos, Maiani) to postulate 4th quark (charm, 1974)

• allows for another diagram for

d
s

• total amplitude explains suppression

‣ cancelation not exact because
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coupling different generations
• the weak interaction therefore connects different generations

• previous issues explained

• kaon decay suppressed by factor of relative to pion

• hence expect

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CKM matrix
• extend ideas to 3 quark avors
‣ CKM (Cabibbo, Kobayashi, Maskawa) matrix

Weak eigenstates CKM Matrix Mass Eigenstates

• e.g. weak eigenstate d’ is produced in weak decay of up quark

• the CKM matrix elements are complex constants

‣ not predicted in the SM

‣ have to be determined from experiment

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Feynman rules
• Depending on the order of the interaction, or ,
the CKM matrix enters as either or
•Writing the interaction in terms of the weak eigenstates note: u is the
adjoint spinor not
the anti-up quark

•Giving the weak current:

•For the weak current is:

•In terms of the mass eigenstates

•Giving the weak current:

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• hence, when the down-type (-1/3) quark enters as the adjoint
spinor, the complex conjugate of the CKM matrix is used

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 CKM from quark masses and mixing
• fermion mass terms are generated from Yukawa interaction and Higgs mechanism

the Higgs

• the mass terms for up- and down-type quarks have the form

• the mass matrices - mu, md - are not diagonal; may be diagonalized (w/ unitary matrices L,R)

• avor changing interactions in the SM (charged currents) through couplings to W± bosons

the CKM matrix

• the unitary quark-mixing matrix V is the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa matrix

• describing quark- avor mixing

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N. Leonardo avor physics & rare decays
fl
fl
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Flavour-changing interactions = charged current

CKM matrix elements not predicted, measured Cross-family transitions disfavoured

B meson mixing
 • Thomson
‣ chapter 11, 12 Next time
Thomson chapter 15, 14
• Grif ths
‣ chapter 10
• Barr et al
‣ chapter 7
• Romão
‣ chapter 7
• Angelis&Pimenta
‣ chapter 6
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the CKM matrix
 quark mixing [CKM]

CKM

+O(λ4)

• CKM: a unitary 3x3 matrix

‣ has 9 parameters: 3 rotation (Euler angles) + 6 phases
‣ 5 of these phases can be absorbed by making phase rotations of quark elds
‣ we are left with 4 independent parameters: 3 angles & 1 (complex) phase
‣ ☛ in a standard parameterization (Wolfenstein) these are: A, λ, ρ & η
• one irreducible phase ➠ the source of CP violation in the SM
Exercise:
• show that in case of N generations, unitarity implies (N-1)2 independent parameters,
with N(N-1)/2 rotation angles and(N-1)(N-2)/2 complex phases
• show that at least three quark generations are required for CP violation
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quarks vs leptons

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CKM unitarity constraints
6 ➡ unitarity triangles

All 6 triangles have the same area, a measure of CPV in the SM

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 “the” unitarity triangle

semileptonic Bd,s mixing

B decays Bs→Dsπ(ππ), DslX
B→Xulν, D(*)lν Bd→Dπ, D(*)lν

CPV in CPV in B→ππ, ρπ

neutral kaons angle: alpha
K→ππ

CPV in B→D*K,Dπ,Kπ CPV in Bd

angle: gamma Bd→ψK, D*D*
(the least well known) angle: sin(2β)
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CKM neutral meson mixing
Measurement of CKM matrix

B meson mixing
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neutral kaon mixing
• the weak interaction allows for mixing of neutral hadrons
• the relevant box diagrams in the kaon system

d s d s

s d s d

• this allows transitions between strong states K0 and K0

• neutral kaons propagate as eigenstates of the overall strong+weak
interaction — i.e. as linear combinations of K0 and K0
‣ these states are called K-short KS and K-long KL
‣ with approximately the same mass
‣ but very different lifetimes

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B meson mixing

➡ neutral B mesons undergo

spontaneous avor oscillations
between particle and antiparticle!

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 meson mixing: quantum mechanics
• allowing for a avor-changing perturbation (ΔF) in the hamiltonian

• a pure avor eigenstate at t=0 will evolve to an admixture

‣ non-diagonal elements in H avor eigenstates differ from mass eigenstates
• avor eigenstates with
• time evolution of avor eigenstates (after nding H eigenvalues λΗ,L)

• probability for particle-antiparticle transition

4
-
‣ with and
• neglecting CPV in mixing (i.e. p/q=1) and ΔΓ, the mixing probability
is:

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Bs mixing

frequency space time space

observation by CDF (2006)
LHCb con rmed (improved precision)
p-value = 8x10-8 corresponding to 5.4σ
Δms = 17.77 ± 0.10(stat) ± 0.07(syst) ps-1 Δms = 17.768 ± 0.023 (stat) ± 0.006 (syst) ps-1

In agreement with SM expectation Δms = 17.3 ± 2.6 ps-1 [arXiv: 1102.4274]

note: experimental precision O(102) times better than theory calculation
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B meson mixing in the SM
• the mixing process (and oscillation
frequency, Δmq) is proportional to
the involved CKM matrix elements
Vtb

• i.e., the ratio of Bd and Bs oscillation frequencies

yields a circle centered at the point (ρ=1, η=0)
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CKM t
• experimental and theoretical inputs with corresponding
uncertainties are combined in global inference frameworks

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 CKM t
today &
tomorrow

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Precision measurements ➥ constrain SM
Discrete spacetime symmetries
Symmetries
• symmetries play a central role in particle physics
• this is the case also of discrete symmetries: C, P, T
‣ here we’ll de ne and introduce these symmetries
‣ and derive the corresponding operators for spinors

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charge conjugation
Charge conjugation
• charge conjugation C transforms particles into anti-particles
‣ leaving unchanged the coordinates and spin
‣ changes the additive numbers, like charge, baryon number etc
• ➡ eigenvalues are ±1 (discrete)

• only neutral particles can be eigenstates of C. e.g., photon, π0

• reversing charge ➡ reverses sign of E eld and ϕ ➡ thus also of A
as then

‣ photon has this negative parity, C(ɣ)=-1

• for pion, from the dominant e.m. decay (branching fraction 98.8%)
‣ it follows
• for particle-anti-particle system, with total spin s and angular momentum l

• charge conjugation is a symmetry of strong and e.m. interactions but not of

the weak interaction (no antineutrinos with negative helicity)

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 Charge conjugation for spinors
• the Dirac equation including interaction with the e.m. eld
‣ with the covariant derivative →
‣ is
• taking the complex conjugate and pre-multiplying by
➡

• de ning ➡
ψ’ has same mass
• conclude particle spinor  anti-particle spinor but opposite charge

• wave function ➡

‣ charge conjugation transforms particle

spinors u into antiparticle spinors v
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parity
Parity
• parity operator performs spatial inversion through the origin

• applying parity twice we get to the initial setting

➡ eigenvalues are ±1 Parity group has 2 (discrete) elements: {I, P}

• intrinsic parity of fundamental particles

Weak gauge bosons (W,Z)
not parity eigenstates

• parity of system of two particles (from QFT rules)

• P(bosons)=P(anti-bosons) ↦ P(bb)=(-1)l
• P(fermions)=-P(anti-fermions) ↦ P(bb)=(-1)l+1
• photons described by a vector ↦

• parity not conserved in weak interactions

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Intrinsic parity of Dirac particles
• for a spinor, parity transformation
• is achieved with

pre-multiplying DE with ɣ0
using x’=-x
and

• solutions for particle/antiparticle at rest

‣ particles and antiparticles have opposite parity

‣ convention: particles chosen to have positive parity

85
scalars and vectors under parity
Scalars and vectors present di erent
behaviours under the parity operation

• position vector
• vectors transform as the coordinates

• pseudovectors transform as ordinary

vectors except for parity

• true scalars remain invariant under parity

• while pseudoscalars change sign

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JPC of hadrons
• hadron identity listed in terms J=L+S scalar JP=0+
pseudoscalar JP=0-
and parity and charge
vector JP=1-
• mesons pseudovector JP=1+
‣ q and q have opposite parity, so meson in
ground state has P=-1; excited states (-1)L

• baryons
‣ cannot be own antiparticles, C unde ned
• examples:
⍴0→π+π- allowed?
JPC(π0)
⍴0 has L=0,J=S=1 → P=-1,C=-1 → JPC=1- -
ground state (L=S=J=0),
ππ pair has intrinsic parity = (-1)π(-1)π=+1, J(π)=0
P=-1, C=+1→JPC=0-+
if produced in L=1 → conserves J, P, C
JPC(K+)
⍴0→π0π0 allowed?
ground state (L=S=J=0),
P=-1, C unde ned→JP=0- decay is forbidden by charge violation (strong or e.m.)
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CP & CPT
CP violation
• although C and P are not symmetry of the weak interaction, it is veri ed
that the product CP is almost a symmetry of the weak interaction (eg
neutrinos with negative helicity do exist in nature)
• historically:
‣ in 1964, it was found that there is a small violation of CP in the KK0 system
‣ in 2001, this was found also by Belle and Babar, in B system
‣ in 2019, CPV was found in the neutral D system
‣ studies to be extended to the neutrino sector
• CP is an essential aspect for our understanding of the universe
‣ CP violation necessary ingredient for generating baryon asymmetry

CPT
• in QFT, CPT ought to be observed
• experimentally, this is also (therefore) actively probed (e.g. via
electron dipole moments of electron or neutron)
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P, T, CPT
P, space inversion T, time inversion

PCT
with

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