UNIT 1

BUILDINGS, BUILDING MATERIALS

Buildings – Definition – Classification according to NBC-plinth area, Floor area, carpet area, floor
space index -Green building, Benefits from green building, Green rating system; Development of
Smart cities - Construction Materials - stone, brick , cement, cement - mortar, concrete, steel - their
properties and uses.

Civil engineering includes the planning, designing, construction and maintenance of structures
and altering geography to suit human needs.

BUILDING

Building is a kind of structure which is built with materials including foundation,

plinth, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys, plumbing and building services, fixed platforms, veranda,
balcony etc. For example, houses, factories, shopping malls, hospitals, etc.

The aim of a building is giving shelter along with security. Other purposes such as
buildings serve several needs of society primarily as living space, privacy, to store belongings
and supplied electricity.

A building has three basic requirements and components. They are -

• Foundation

• Plinth

• Superstructure

1. WHAT ARE THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF BUILDINGS ACCORDING TO NBC?

EXPLAIN.

Classification of building:

According to National Building code of India 1970, the buildings are classified as two groups
1. Based on occupancy
2. Based on type of construction
BASED ON OCCUPANCY

Residential buildings:

All those buildings in which sleeping accommodation is provided for residing

permanently or temporary with or without looking or dining or both facilities are termed as
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 residential building. Ex: Apartments, Flats, Bungalows, Dormitories, private houses, Hotels,
Hostels, Cottages, Hole day camps, clubs, hotels, Inns etc

These buildings are further subdivided into 5 groups

i. Lodging Houses

ii. Family Private Dwellings

iii. Dormitories

iv. Flats

v. Hotels

Educational buildings:

All those buildings which are meant for education from nursery to university are included
in this group. Ex: Schools, Colleges, Universities, Training Institutes etc.

Institutional Buildings:

These types of buildings consist of buildings that are constructed by the government,
semi-government organizations or registered trusts for specific purposes.
This can be used for the purposes such as medical, health, recovering health after illness,
physical or mental diseases, care of infants or aged persons, panel detention etc. These
buildings normally provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants.

Assembly Buildings:

This group includes any building or part or a building where groups of people
assemble or gather for amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic or similar purpose
for example theatres, cinema halls, museums, gymnasiums, restaurants, places of worship,
dance halls, club rooms, passenger stations, public transportation services, open air theatres,
swimming pools etc.

Business Buildings:

This group includes any building or part or a building which is used for purposes such
as transaction of business, keeping of accounts and records etc; dispensaries and clinics,
banks, city halls, court halls, libraries etc.

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Mercantile Buildings:

This group includes any building or part of a building which is used for shops, stores,
market, for safe and display of products or waves either whole sale or retail.

Industrial Buildings:

This group includes any building or part of a building or structure in which product of
different kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled or processed. For example,
laboratories, assembly plants, laundries, gas plants, power plants, refineries, diaries etc.

Storage Building:

This group includes those building structures which are primarily used for the storage
structures which are primarily used for the storage or sheltering of goods, waves or
merchandise vehicles or animals, for example warehouses, cold storages, freight depots, store
houses, transit sheds, truck terminals, garages etc.

Hazardous Building:

This group includes those building structures which are used for the storage, handling,
and manufacture or processing of materials which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity and
prove hazards to health; building or building contents. Hazards may be due to fire; poisonous
fumes or gases, explosions, ignitions etc from materials subjected to various operations.
Buildings used for storage of gases under high pressure or for storage and handling of highly
flammable liquids or explosives, fireworks etc are included in this group.

BASED ON TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION

1. Fire resistive buildings: (Type 1A, 1B)

With this type of construction, walls, partitions, columns, floors, and roofs are the
most noncombustible when it comes to fire-resistant ratings. These structures are usually easy
to spot based on their height. Fire-resistive buildings are more than 75-feet tall and made of
poured concrete and protective steel. They are designed to withstand the effects of fire for a
long period of time to prevent a fire from spreading.
2. Non- combustible buildings: (Type 2A, 2B)
Non-combustible buildings are similar to the fire-resistive type where walls,
partitions, columns, floors, and roofs are noncombustible. However, they provide less fire
resistance and do not withstand the effects or spreading of fire as well as Type I. This type
gets its name “noncombustible” not because of its resistance to fire, but because of the fuel
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 the building contributes. Newer school buildings are common examples of this type of
construction. These buildings typically have a metal floor and metal roof with masonry or
tilt-slab walls. They are the least stable in terms of collapse when exposed to fire.
3. Ordinary buildings: (Type 3)
These buildings are also called brick-and-joist structures. This type of construction
has brick or block walls with a wooden roof or floor assembly which is not protected against
fire. All or part of the interior structural elements (frame, floors, ceilings, etc.) is
combustible/wood. Verticle ventilation in these types of buildings is possible. You will see
ordinary construction in both old and new buildings.
4. Heavy Timber: (Type 4)
Type IV buildings have noncombustible exterior walls and interior elements. These
buildings are made out of solid or laminated wood. All wooden members must meet
dimensional requirements. Wood columns, beams, and girders must be at least 8 inches thick.
Heavy planks for floors and roofs must be at least 6 inches thick. If these types of buildings
catch fire, they require large volumes of water to extinguish, but they hold up well against
fire and don’t collapse easily due to their structural mass.
5. Wood framed buildings: (Type 5)

Wood-framed buildings are the most combustible out of all the types. They are the
only construction type that allow combustible exterior walls. Type V also allows a
combustible interior (structural frames, walls, floors, and roofs) made entirely or partly out of
wood. This type is commonly found in modern homes. They often have exposed wood so
there is no fire-resistance. It ignites significantly but is reasonably resistant to collapse unless
it is a lightweight construction, in which case it will fail within minutes.

2. DEFINE PLINTH AREA.

Plinth area is defined as the built up covered area of a building at its floor level of any storey.

3. DEFINE CARPET AREA.

Carpet area is the useful area or livable area. It is calculated by measuring the total floor area
after deducting verandahs, corridors, passages, entrances, stairs, canteens, sanitary area, air
conditioning rooms etc.

In office building may be 60 to 75 % of the plinth area of the building with a target of 75 %

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 In residential building may be 50 to 65 % of the plinth area of the building with a target of 65
%

4. DEFINE CIRCULATION AREA.

Circulation area is the floor area of verandah, passages, corridors, balconies, entrance halls,
porches, staircase etc. which are used for movement of persons using the buildings

Circulation area is divided into two parts

• Horizontal circulation area

▪ Horizontal circulation area of building is the area of verandahs, passages,
corridors, balconies, porches etc
▪ This may be 10 % to 15 % of the plinth area of the building.
• Vertical circulation area
▪ Vertical circulation area of a building is the area or space occupied by staircase,
lifts and the entrance hall adjacent to them which are required for the vertical
movement of the users of the buildings
▪ This may be 4 to 5 % of the plinth area of the buildings.

5. DEFINE FLOOR AREA.

Floor area is the area between walls and is equal to plinth area minus the area
occupied by the walls.

6. DEFINE FLOOR AREA RATIO (FAR).

Floor area ratio as the total built up covered area of all floors and the area of the plot.

F.A.R= Total Built-up area of all floors/Plot area

GREEN BUILDING

A ‘green’ building is a building which reduces negative impacts and creates positive
impacts on our climate and natural environment. Green buildings preserve precious natural
resources and improve our quality of life. The construction and operation will promote a
healthy environment and it will not disrupt the land, water, resources and energy in and
around the building.

There are a number of features which can make a building ‘green’. These include:

• Efficient use of energy, water and other resources

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 • Use of renewable energy, such as solar energy

• Pollution and waste reduction measures, and the enabling of re-use and recycling

• Good indoor environmental air quality

• Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable

• Consideration of the environment in design, construction and operation

• Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design, construction and operation

• A design that enables adaptation to a changing environment

1. WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF GREEN BUILDING?

❖ Low Maintenance and Operation Cost

Green buildings incorporate unique construction features that ensure efficient use
of resources such water and energy. For example, by using task lighting strategy and a
lot of daylight, green buildings vastly reduce the amount of power used in lighting
systems; This allows users to save as much as a third of their water and energy bills.
Even though constructing a green building may be slightly more expensive than their
non-green counterparts, the reduced operation and maintenance costs of green
buildings make them much cheaper in the long term.

❖ Energy Efficiency

Designers of green buildings try as much as possible to reduce dependency on

energy from non-renewable sources such as coal. To this end, they install solar panels
to make use of energy from the sun, and design windows in a way that allows as much
natural light as possible and, therefore, reduces the use of artificial light; these and
other methods ensure that the building uses energy in an efficient manner.

❖ Enhances Indoor Environment Quality

Indoor environment quality depends on conditions inside a building and how

they affect the occupants of the building. These conditions include lighting,
ergonomics, thermal conditions and air quality. Good indoor environment quality is
one protects the health of the building’s occupants, reduces stress and improves their
quality of life. Green buildings achieve this through the installation of operable

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 windows that allow in as much sunlight as possible and reducing the use of materials
that may emit elements that are dangerous to the health.

❖ Water Efficiency

Water efficiency involves using water resources in a manner that saves water
and ensures that today and future generations enjoy a reliable supply of clean water.
Green building allows for the use of alternative sources of water such as rainwater,
reducing water waste through the installation of plumbing fixtures that are efficient
and reducing the strain on shared water resources by installing systems that purify
water and enable recycling.

❖ Better Health

People who live in green buildings enjoy many health benefits because of the
safety of materials used in the construction of such buildings. For instance, eco-
friendly construction companies avoid using plastic by-products that have been found
to release toxic materials. Toxic substances like carcinogens not only cause significant
breathing difficulties but also increase the chances of getting cancer.

❖ Material Efficiency

Material efficiency involves the use of physical process and materials in a

manner that allows for the minimum use of materials without compromising the
quality of the outcome; also, the processes should generate as little waste as possible.
To achieve material efficiency, green building companies use materials that are long
lasting, recycle and reuse some products, design buildings in a manner that allow for
the use of fewer materials and employ processes that use less water, raw materials,
and energy. All these help achieve material efficiency.

❖ Better Environment

By reducing usage of energy sources that pollute the environment such as coal,
green buildings contribute to keeping the environment clean. In addition, by reducing
the levels of carbon (IV) oxide emitted to the atmosphere, they help to lessen the pace
of climate change.

❖ Reduces Strain on Local Resources

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 As population increases, local shared resources such as water and energy come
under considerable pressure. Through the use of technologies and processes that
increase water and energy efficiency, green buildings can reduce this strain.

2. WHAT ARE THE GREEN BUILDING RATING SYSTEMS IN INDIA? EXPLAIN IN

DETAIL.

There are three primary Rating systems in India.

1. GRIHA

2. IGBC

3. BEE

Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA)

Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) is India’s own rating
system jointly developed by TERI and the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
Government of India. It is a green building design evaluation system where buildings are
rated in a three-tier process. The process initiates with the online submission of
documents as per the prescribed criteria followed by on site visit and evaluation of the
building by a team of professionals and experts from GRIHA Secretariat. GRIHA rating
system consists of 4 criteria categorized in four different sections.

Some of them are

(1) Site selection and site planning

(2) Conservation and efficient utilization of resources

(3) Building operation and maintenance and

(4) Innovation

Indian Green Building Council (IGBC)

Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) formed the Indian Green Building Council
(IGBC) in year 2001. IGBC is the nonprofit research institution having its offices in CII-
Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre, which is itself a LEED certified Green building.
IGBC facilitates Indian green structures to become one of the green buildings.

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 IGBC has developed the following green building rating systems for different types of
building in line and conformity with US Green Building Council. Till date, following Green
Building rating systems are available under IGBC;

1. LEED India for New Construction

2. LEED India for Core and Shell

3. IGBC Green Homes

4. IGBC Green Factory Building

5. IGBC Green SEZ

6. IGBC Green Townships

Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

BEE developed its own rating system for the buildings based on a 1 to 5 star scale.
More stars mean more energy efficiency. BEE has developed the Energy Performance Index
(EPI). The unit of Kilo watt hours per square meter per year is considered for rating the
building and especially targets air conditioned and non-air conditioned office buildings. The
Reserve Bank of India’s buildings in Delhi and Bhubaneswar, the CII Sohrabji Godrej Green
Business Centre and many other buildings has received BEE 5 star ratings.

Green buildings might be costly but is good for the environment. In this rapidly
changing world, we should adopt the technology that helps us to save precious natural
resources. This would lead us to true sustainable development.

SMART CITY

In the approach of the Smart Cities Mission, the objective is to promote cities that
provide core infrastructure and give a decent quality of life to its citizens, a clean and
sustainable environment and application of ‘Smart’ Solutions. The focus is on sustainable and
inclusive development and the idea is to look at compact areas, create a replicable model
which will act like a light house to other aspiring cities.

The core infrastructure elements in a smart city would include:

• adequate water supply

• assured electricity supply

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 • sanitation, including solid waste management

• efficient urban mobility and public transport

• affordable housing, especially for the poor

• robust IT connectivity and digitalization

• good governance, especially e-Governance and citizen participation

• sustainable environment

• safety and security of citizens, particularly women, children and the elderly

• Health and education

Accordingly, the purpose of the Smart Cities Mission is to drive economic growth and
improve the quality of life of people by enabling local area development and harnessing
technology, especially technology that leads to Smart outcomes. Area- based development
will transform existing areas (retrofit and redevelop), including slums, into better planned
ones, thereby improving livability of the whole City.

STONES

1. LIST OUT THE PROPERTIES OF GOOD BUILDING STONE TO BE

CONSIDERED WHILE SELECTING.

1. Appearance 7. Structure

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 2. Compressive strength 8. Fire resistance

3. Hardness 9. Durable

4. Specific gravity

5. Workability

6. Water absorption

2. HOW THE ROCKS ARE CLASSIFIED?

Rocks are classified into igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

• Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten material from beneath the earth’s
surface. Eg. Granite, Basalt
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of weathering products on existing
rocks. Eg. Sand stone, Limstone
• Metamorphic rocks are formed by the change in character of the preexisting rocks. Eg.
Slate, Marble.

3. LIST THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD STONE.

i. Stones must be decent in appearance and be of uniform colour.

ii. Stones must be durable.

iii. A good building stone should have a wear less than 3%.

iv. A good building stone should have a specific gravity greater than 2.2.

v. A good building stone must be acid resistant and free from soluble matter.

4. WHAT ARE THE USES OF STONES?

• For construction of walls, columns, bridge piers

• For paving work and as road metal
• For carving and facing works
• For flooring and lining of walls.

5. WHAT IS MEANT BY QUARRYING OF STONES?

Quarrying is the process of extracting stone blocks from existing rocks. It is done at some
depth below the top surface of rock where the effects of weathering are not found. Quarrying

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 is done by digging, heating and wedging for soft rocks like marble, lime stone etc. For hard
and dense rocks, blasting is done using explosives.

6. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON DRESSING OF STONES.

Stones obtained by quarrying will have irregular shapes and sizes. Dressing is the
process of cutting the stones to a regular shape and size and the required surface.

7. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON ANY THREE MAJOR TESTING ON STONES.

Acid test: A stone specimen is kept for a week time in the solution of sulphuric acid and
hydrochloric acid. The corners of stones with high alkaline content changes to round
shape and the particles will get deposited at the bottom.

Hardness test: A penknife is used for this test. It is used for producing a scratch on the
hard stone. If the stone appears then the quality of the stone is low.

Abrasion test: Deval’s test machine is used to carry out this test. It is used to test the
percentage of wear of stones.

8. EXPLAIN THE PROPERTIES OF BUILDING STONES IN DETAIL.

Structure: The structure of the stone can be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured
stones should be simply dressed and appropriate for super structure. Unstratified stones are
hard and complicated to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.

Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Therefore stones having
specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.

Appearance: A stone having uniform and attractive color is durable, if grains are compact.
Granite and Marble get very well appearance, when polished. Therefore they are used for
face works in buildings.

Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and therefore
they are used for carving. Such stones are typically strong and durable.

Strength: Strength is an essential property to be looked into before choosing stone as

building block. Indian standard code recommends minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2
for any particular building block. Given table shows the crushing strength of many stones.
Due to non-uniformity of the material, generally a factor of safety of 10 is used to discover

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the permissible stress in a stone. Therefore even laterite can be used safely for a single storey
building, because in such type of structures expected load can hardly give a stress of 0.15
N/mm2. Still in stone masonry buildings care should be taken to ensure the stresses when the
beams (Concentrated Loads) are placed on laterite wall.

Table for crushing strength of common building stones

Hardness: It is an essential property to be considered when stone is used for pavement and
flooring. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in
Dory's testing machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For
building works stones having coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.

Percentage wear: It is measured by attrition test. It is an essential property to be considered

in choosing aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone will not show wear of
more than 2%.

Porosity and Absorption: All the stones have pores and therefore absorb water. The reaction
of water having material of stone causes disintegration. Absorption test is referring as
percentage of water absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours. For
a good stone it ought to be as small as possible and in no case more than five.

Weathering: wind and Rain cause loss of good appearance of stones. Therefore stones with
good weather resistance should be used for face works.

Toughness: The resistance to impact is known toughness. It is resolute by impact test. Stones
having toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. The toughness index 13 to
19 is considered as medium tough and stones having toughness index less than 13 are poor
stones.

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Resistance to Fire: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, although poor in
strength, are fine in resisting fire.

Ease in Dressing: Cost of dressing contributes to rate of stone masonry to a great extent.
Dressing is simple in stones having lesser strength. Therefore an engineer should look into
enough strength rather than high strength whereas selecting stones for building works.

Seasoning: The stones obtained from quarry hold moisture in the pores. Strength of the stone
improves if this moisture is removed before by using the stone. The procedure of removing
moisture from pores is known as seasoning. The best way of seasoning is to permit it to the
action of nature for 6 to12 months. It is very much needed in the case of laterite stones.

9. WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BUILDING STONE AND

IMPORTANT VARIETIES OF BUILDING STONES?

Requirements of a good building stone

➢ Stones should possess fine grained structure.

➢ The color of the stones should be uniform and pleasing and it should be free from soft
patches, flaws and cracks.

➢ Freshly broken surface should be bright and sharp.

➢ Stone should be strong, hard and durable

➢ Stone should be resistant to weathering

➢ Stone should be resistant to smoke, fire and acidic atmosphere.

➢ A good building stones should be durable. It should not be easily affected by

temperature, rain, sunlight, wind etc.

➢ A good building stones should be easily dressed i.e. easily moulded, cut and carved

➢ Fracture of a good building stone should be sharp, even and clear

➢ A good building stone should not be easily affected by fire

➢ A good building stone should have compact fine crystalline structure, free from
cavities, cracks etc.

➢ The crushing strength should be greater than 1000 kg/cm2

➢ Co-efficient of hardness should not be below 14

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 ➢ Percentage of wear should not be less than 2 percent

➢ Specific gravity should not be less than 2.5

➢ Toughness index should not be less than 14 and should be more than 19

➢ It should not absorb more than 5 percent of water by weight if kept immersed in water
for 24 hours

Important varieties of good building stones

Granite

It is essentially igneous rock.

It is mainly composed of quartz, felspar and mica.

It is hard, durable and available in different colours.

Specific gravity is 2.6 to 2.7

Compressive strength is 770 to 1300 kg/cm2

Uses: It is suitable for all important works such as bridge, abutments, piers, columns, road
metal, ballast etc.

Location: Chennai, Rajasthan, Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Mysore,
Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat and Kerala.

Sand stone

It is moderately stratified sedimentary rock consisting of grains of sand or

quartz cemented together by silicates of alumina, lime and magnesium

It is easy to work and dress, and available in different colours

Specific gravity is 2.65 to 2.95

Compressive strength is 650 kg/cm2

Uses: It is used to general building construction and ornamental carving

Location: A.P., M.P., Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andaman Islands, Chennai
and Kashmir

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Lime stone

It is sedimentary rock. It contains large proportion of calcium carbonate.

It is easy to work

Specific gravity is 2 to 2.75

Compressive strength is 550 kg/cm2

Uses: It is used for flooring, paving and roofing. Limestone is also used for general building
construction purposes and manufacture of lime

Location: A.P., M.P., U.P., Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andaman Islands

Marble

It is metamorphic rock. It is very compact and durable stone.

It is available in varieties of colours.

It can take good polish.

It can easily be sawn and carved

Specific gravity is 2.65

Compressive strength is 720 kg/cm2

Uses: It is extremely suitable for ornamental and superior type of building work. It is also
used for flooring, facing work, steps etc.

Location: A.P., U.P., Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Mysore

Gneiss

It is metamorphic rock.

It is very compact and durable stone

It is available in varieties of colours.

It can take good polish

It can easily be sawn and carved

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 Specific gravity is 2.65

Compressive strength is 2100 kg/cm2

Uses: It is used for rough stone masonry, street paving etc.

Location: A.P., U.P., Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Mysore

10. WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS TESTS CONDUCTED ON BUILDING STONE?

EXPLAIN ANY FOUR.

Crushing Strength Test

• For conducting this test, specimens of size 40 × 40 × 40 mm are prepared from parent
stone.

• Then the sides are finely dressed and placed in water for 3 days.

• The saturated specimen is provided with a layer of plaster of Paris on its top and
bottom surfaces to get even surface so that load applied is distributed uniformly.

• Uniform load distribution can be obtained satisfactorily by providing a pair of 5 mm

thick plywood instead of using plaster of Paris layer also.

• The specimen so placed in the compression testing machine is loaded at the rate of 14
N/mm2 per minute.

• The crushing load is noted.

• Then crushing strength is equal to the crushing load divided by the area over which
the load is applied.

• At least three specimens should be tested and the average should be taken as crushing
strength.

Acid Test

This test is normally carried out on sand stones to check the presence of calcium carbonate,
which weakens the weather resisting quality.

• In this test, a sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is taken and kept in a
solution of one per cent hydrochloric acid for seven days.

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 • The solution is agitated at intervals. A good building stone maintains its sharp edges
and keeps its surface intact.

• If edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it indicates the presence of
calcium carbonate.

• Such stones will have poor weather resistance

Water Absorption Test

Following procedure is adopted for this test:

(i) From the given sample of stone, a cube weighing about ago N is prepared. Its actual
weight is recorded. Let it be W1 N.

(ii) The cube is then immersed in distilled water for a period of 24 hour.

(iii) The cube is taken out of water and surface water is wiped off with a damp cloth

(iv) It is weighed again. Let its weight be W2 N.

(v) The cube is suspended freely in water and its weight is recorded. Let it be W3 N

(vi) The water is boiled and cube is kept in boiling water for five hours.

(vii) It is then removed and surface water is wiped off with a damp cloth its weight is
recorded. From the above data, the values of the following properties of stone are obtained.

Percentage absorption by weight after hours = ((W2-W1) / W1) x 100 --------------------------(1)

Percentage absorption by volume after 24 hours = ((W2-W1) / (W2-W3)) X 100 ----(2)

[Volume of displaced water r W2-W3]

Percentage porosity by volume = ((W4-W1) / (W2-W3)) X l00 -----------------------------------(3)

Saturation coefficient = Water absorption / total porosity (i.e) (2) / (3)

Saturation coefficient = (W2-W1) / (W4-W1)

Hardness test

To determine the hardness of a stone, the test is carried out as follows:

A cylinder of diameter 25 mm and height 25 mm is taken out from the sample of stone. It is
weighed (It is placed in Dory's testing machine and pressed with a pressure of 12.50 N. The
annular steel disc of machine is then rotated at a speed of 28 R.P.M. During the rotation of
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disc, the coarse sand of standard specification is sprinkled on the top of disc. After 1000
revolutions, the specimen is taken out and weighed. The coefficient of hardness is found out
from the following equation,

Coefficient of hardness = 20- (loss in weight in g/m3)

11. WHAT ARE THE APPLICATIONS OF STONE IN CONSTRUCTION?

Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundation, walls, columns and
arches

Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels, and even as roofing
material.

Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings.
Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for face works.

Stones are used in construction of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and
retaining walls.

Crushed stones with gravel are used to provide base course for roads.

Crushed stones are used for making artificial stones and building blocks

Crushed stone is used as alternative substitute for artificial sand.

Lime stones are used in the manufacture of lime, cement and other chemical
processes.

Broken stones are used for road work and for laying railway tracks as stone
ballast.

BRICK

1. LIST THE FOUR MAJOR OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN BRICK

MANUFACTURING.

i. Preparation of brick earth.

ii. Moulding of bricks

iii. Drying of bricks

iv. Burning of bricks

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2. HOW TO PREPARE THE BRICK EARTH FOR MANUFACTURING?

• Loose soil which contains impurities is removed for about 20 cm depth.

• Earth is then dug out from the ground, spread and weathering is done for a
week time.
• The clay is then mixed with suitable ingredients by tilting the clay and
ingredients up and down in a kiln.
• Water is added to clay to make the whole mass of clay homogeneous and
plastic.

3. WHAT ARE VARIOUS CLASSIFICATION OF HAND MOULDING? WRITE SHORT

NOTES ON EACH.

Hand moulding is classified into,

i. Table moulding

ii. Ground moulding

Table moulding

▪ Done by the experienced supervisor

▪ Bricks are moulded on the table and sent to next stage.

Ground Moulding

▪ Small portion of ground is cleaned and leveled.

▪ Fine sand is sprinkled over it.

▪ Mould is dipped in water and kept on the ground and the clay is pressed
by hand.

4. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON MACHINE MOULDING.

▪ Machine moulding is used in mass production of bricks (huge quantity)

▪ These machines contain a rectangular opening of size equal to length and

breadth of the brick.

▪ The tempered clay is placed in the machine.

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 ▪ The tempered clay comes out as through the opening under pressure, hence it
is cut to the required shape.

5. WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS CONSTITUENTS OF A BRICK?

Alumina is the chief constituent of a brick. A good brick should have a content of
20-30% of alumina. Silica is another constituent that exist in a brick. A brick should
contain 50-60% of silica. Up to 5% of lime is preferable for a good brick. Hence
Alumina, Silica and lime are the major contents of a good brick.

6. WHAT ARE THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD BRICK?

• A good brick should have perfect edges, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured and free
from cracks.

• Bricks should not break when dropped from a height of 1m.

• Bricks should have low thermal conductivity and should be sound proof.

• The minimum crushing strength of bricks must be 3.5 N/mm2.

• Bricks must be homogeneous and free from voids.

7. DISCUSS THE DIFFERENT TEST CONDUCTED ON BRICKS.

• Compressive strength test

• Water Absorption test

• Efflorescence test

• Hardness test

• Size, Shape and Color test

• Soundness test

• Structure test

Compressive strength test:

• This test is done to know the compressive strength of brick.

• It is also called crushing strength of brick.

21
 • Generally 5 specimens of bricks are taken to laboratory for testing and tested one by
one.

• In this test a brick specimen is put on crushing machine and applied pressure till it
breaks.

• The ultimate pressure at which brick is crushed is taken into account.

• All five brick specimens are tested one by one and average result is taken as brick’s
compressive/crushing strength.

Water Absorption test

• In this test bricks are weighed in dry condition and let them immersed in fresh water
for 24 hours

• After 24 hours of immersion those are taken out from water and wipe out with cloth.

• Then brick is weighed in wet condition.

• The difference between weights is the water absorbed by brick.

• The percentage of water absorption is then calculated.

• The less water absorbed by brick the greater its quality.

• Good quality brick doesn’t absorb more than 20% water of its own weight.

Efflorescence test

• The presence of alkalis in bricks is harmful and they form a grey or white layer on
brick surface by absorbing moisture.

• To find out the presence of alkalis in bricks this test is performed.

• In this test a brick is immersed in fresh water for 24 hours and then it’s taken out from
water and allowed to dry in shade.

• If the whitish layer is not visible on surface it proofs that absence of alkalis in brick.

• If the whitish layer visible about 10% of brick surface then the presence of alkalis is
in acceptable range.

• If that is about 50% of surface then it is moderate.

22
 • If the alkalies’ presence is over 50% then the brick is severely affected by alkalies.

Hardness test

• In this test a scratch is made on brick surface with a hard thing.

• If that doesn’t left any impression on brick then that is good quality brick.

Size, shape and colour test

In this test randomly collected 20 bricks are staked along lengthwise, width wise and height
wise and then those are measured to know the variation of sizes as per standard. Bricks are
closely viewed to check if its edges are sharp and straight and uniform in shape. A good
quality brick should have bright and uniform colour throughout.

Soundness test

• In this test two bricks are held by both hands and struck with one another.

• If the bricks give clear metallic ringing sound and don’t break then those are good
quality bricks.

Structure test

• In this test a brick is broken or a broken brick is collected and closely observed.

• If there are any flows, cracks or holes present on that broken face then that isn’t good
quality brick.

8. LIST THE CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BRICKS. STATE ITS USES IN

CONSTRUCTION.

Colour: Colour should be uniform and bright.

Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners.

Size: Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.

Texture: They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not possess
fissures, cavities, loose grit and unburnt lime

Soundness: When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic
sound

Hardness: Finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick.

23
Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for
strength is that when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground, the brick
should not break into pieces.

Water Absorption: After immersing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should
not be more than 20 per cent by weight. For class-I works this limit is 15 per cent.

Efflorescence: Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and
then allowed to dry in shade. White patches are due to the presence of sulphate of calcium,
magnesium and potassium. They keep the masonry permanently in damp and wet conditions.

Thermal Conductivity: Bricks should have low thermal conductivity, so that buildings built
with them are cool in summer and warm in winter

Sound Insulation: Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while light weight and hollow
bricks provide good sound insulation.

Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact bricks are used to encase
steel columns to protect them from fire.

Uses of bricks

Bricks are used in the following civil works:

• As building blocks.

• For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys.

• For protecting steel columns from fire.

• As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C. roofs.

• For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks.

• For lining sewer lines.

9. HOW BRICKS ARE MANUFACTURED?

Preparation of brick earth

i. Loose soil which contains impurities is removed for about 20 cm depth.

ii. Earth is then dug out from the ground, spread and weathering is done for a
week time.

24
 iii. The clay is then mixed with suitable ingredients by tilting the clay and
ingredients up and down in a kiln.

iv. Water is added to clay to make the whole mass of clay homogeneous and
plastic.

Moulding of bricks

Hand moulding: It is done in a rectangular box with open at top and bottom. Box is made up
of wood or steel

Hand moulding further classified into,

i. Table moulding

ii. Ground moulding

Table moulding

i. Done by the experienced supervisor

ii. Bricks are moulded on the table and sent to next stage.

Ground Moulding

i. Small portion is cleaned and leveled.

ii. Find sand is sprinkled over it.

iii. Mould is dipped in water and kept on the ground and the clay is pressed by
hand

Drying of bricks

i. Bricks are staked in the yard with 8 to 10 bricks in a row.

ii. Bricks are dried for a period of 5 to 12 days.

iii. Sometimes bricks are dried by hot gases from kiln.

iv. But artificial drying produces warps on the bricks

Burning of bricks

i. It imparts hardness and strength to bricks and makes them dense and durable.

25
 ii. Burning should be uniform, because unburnt bricks remain soft and hence
cannot carry loads.

iii. Overburnt bricks become brittle and break easily.

iv. Burning of bricks done in clamp or kilns.

CEMENT

1. DEFINE CEMENT.

Cement is a substance which acts as a binding agent for materials. It is obtained by burning
the mixture of calcareous materials such as lime stone and argillaceous materials such as clay
at a very high temperature

2. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY GRADE OF CEMENT?

There are three grade of cement are 33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade. (e.g) If 33 grade of
cement has a cube compressive strength of 33 N/mm2 after 28 days curing

3. WHAT ARE THE RAW MATERIALS USED IN THE MANUFACTURING OF

CEMENT?

There are two main raw materials used for the manufacturing of cement

1. Argillaceous material (Shale and Clay)

2. Calcareous materials (Limestone, chalk, Marine shells)

4. HOW CEMENT IS PRODUCED?

A mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials is burnt at very high temperature to

produce the cement. The calcined powder is also known as clinker. A small percentage of
gypsum is also added with the clinker.

5. WHAT ARE THE QUALITIES OF GOOD CEMENT?

i. Good cement should be uniform in colour and free from lumps.

ii. If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a vessel of water, the cement
powder should sink.

iii. The total sulphur content of the cement should not be greater than 2.75
percent.

26
6. STATE THE TEST CARRIED OUT ON CEMENT.

1. Fineness test 4. Consistency test

2. Intial setting time test 5. Final setting time test

3. Soundness test 6. Compressive strength test

7. WRITE BRIEFLY ABOUT ANY THREE TYPES OF CEMENT.

Rapid hardening cement: This type of cement is an ordinary Portland cement with an
additional property of developing its strength rapidly. It is used where high strength is
required instantly in initial stages.

Quick setting cement: This type of cement takes lesser time for setting. Since the gypsum
content is lesser in this cement, it settles very quickly. It is mainly used in underwater
construction.

White cement: The cement is named as white cement, as it appears white in colour. It is used
for architectural and flooring purposes.

8. STATE THE CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT.

There are two main constituents in Portland cement

1. Argillaceous materials 2. Calcareous materials

In argillaceous materials, clay is the main ingredient and in calcareous materials, calcium
carbonate is the main ingredient. Following are the composition of ordinary or Portland
cement.

Ingredient Percent

Lime (CaO) 62

Silica (SiO2) 22

Alumina 5

Calcium Sulphate (CaSo4) 4

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 3

Magnesia (MgO) 2

27
 Sulphur (S) 1

Alkalies 1

9. EXPLAIN THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT.

There are three main operations involved in the manufacture of ordinary Portland cement

1. Mixing of raw materials

2. Burning

3. Grinding

Mixing of raw materials

There are two methods in the mixing of raw materials of cement

1. Dry process

2. Wet process

Dry process

• In this method the calcareous material such as lime stone and argillaceous
material such as clay are separately reduced in size of about 25 mm in crushers

• After drying these materials are grinded in ball mills or tube mills.

• This powder is then stored in hoppers

• Then they are mixed in correct proportions.

• The raw material is stored in storage tank

Wet process

• In wet process, calcareous materials such as lime stone are crushed and stored
in silos or storage tanks.

• Argillaceous material such as clay is washed and stored in basins.

• Now crushed lime stone from silos and wet clay from basin are allowed to fall
in a channel in correct proportions

28
 • This material is grinded in ball mill or tube mill to form slurry

• The chemical composition of this slurry is then adjusted in correcting basin

and corrected slurry is stored in storage tank.

Burning

• The burning of the dry mixture or fine slurry is carried out in a long rotary
kiln

• The diameter of kiln varies from 250 cm to 300 cm and its length varies from
90 m to 120 m.

• It is laid with a slight inclination of 1 in 20 to 1 in 30 towards the discharging

end

• The kiln is supported on rollers such that it can rotate about its longitudinal
axis at the rate of one revolution per minute.

• Refractory lining is provided on the inside surface of the rotary kiln

• From the storage tank the corrected slurry is injected at the upper end of kiln

• The hot gases or flames are forced through the lower end in kiln.

• Portion of the kiln near its upper end is known as dry zone and in this zone

• The water from slurry is evaporated

• As the dried slurry descends towards the burning zone, carbon dioxide from
the slurry is evaporated and it is converted into small lumps called nodules.

• The nodules then gradually roll down and ultimately reach the burning zone
when temperature is about 1500°C to 1700°C

• In burning zone, the lime and clay in the slurry get chemically fused to form
hard balls of portland cement known as clinkers

• The size of clinkers varies from 5 mm to 10 mm

• The hot clinkers are collected in containers of suitable size

Grinding

• The grinding of the clinker is done in ball mill or tube mills

29
 • During grinding a small quantity about 3 to 4 percent of gypsum is added

• Gypsum controls the intial setting time of cement

• If gypsum is not added, cement would set as soon as water is added

• The finely ground cement is stored in silos

• It is then weighted and packed in bags.

• Each bag of cement contains 50 kg of cement or about 0.035 m3 of cement

• These bags are carefully stored in dry places

10. EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENT.

Types of Cement:

1. Ordinary Portland Cement

2. Rapid Hardening Cement (or) High Early Strength cement

3. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement

4. Sulphate Resisting Cement

5. Quick Setting Cement

6. Low Heat Cement

7. Portland Pozzolana Cement

8. Portland Slag Cement

9. High Alumina Cement

10. Air Entraining Cement

11. Supersulphated Cement

12. Masonry Cement

13. Expansive Cement

14. Colored Cement

15. White Cement

PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT

30
 • Portland Pozzolona cement is produced by grinding together Portland cement
and Pozzolona.

• Portland Pozzolona cement produces less heat of hydration and offers greater
resistance to attack of aggressive water or sulphates bearing than OPC.

• It takes a little longer to gain strength.

• Ultimate Strength of this cement is more than OPC

Uses

• This cement has properties similar to those of OPC and can therefore be used
for all general purpose

• Portland Pozzolona cement are particularly used in marine works.

PORTLAND SLAG CEMENT

• It is obtained by mixing clinker, gypsum and granulated slag in a proper

proportion.

• The Properties of this cement is very similar to that of OPC which are as
under.

• It has lesser heat of hydration and has better resistance of soils, sulphates of
alkali metals, alumina and iron.

• It has better resistance to acidic water.

Uses

• This type of cement is mostly used in Marine Works.

RAPID HARDENING CEMENT

• This type cement gets the strength faster than OPC.

• However its initial and final setting is same as those of OPC.

• It contains more of Tri-Calcium Silicate (C3S) and is more finely grounded.

31
 • It gives out more heat while setting so it is as such unsuitable for massive
concrete.

Uses

• As it sets quickly the construction may be carried out speedly

• It is used for the structures which are subjected to loads early e.g. Roads,
Bridges.

QUICK SETTING CEMENT

• It sets faster than the Ordinary Portland Cement.

• Its Initial Setting Time is 5 minutes and the Final Setting Time is not more 30
minutes.

• It is required for making concrete that is required to set early as for lying
under water or in running water.

• Initial setting being very little there is always the danger of concrete having
undergone its initial setting.

Uses
• Thus this type of cement is used in more special cases like under water.
LOW HEAT CEMENT

• The heat generated by cement while setting may cause the structure to crack in
case of concrete.

• This heat generation is controlled by keeping the high percentage of Tri-

Calcium Silicate (C3S) and that of Tri-Calcium Aluminate (C3A) low.

• Its initial setting and Final setting times are nearly the same as those of OPC.

• It is not very suitable for ordinary structures because the use of cement will
delayed time of drying.

• It will also need more curing

Uses

• Mass concreting of dams etc.

32
WHITE CEMENT

• It is the cement of pure white colour and it is free from colouring ingredients
such as iron oxide, manganese oxide or chromium oxide.

• It have same properties as those of Ordinary Portland Cement.

• Greyish colour of cement is due to iron oxide (FeO).

• White cement is manufactured from chalk and clay free from Iron Oxide.

• Oil fuel and not the coal is used for the burning of this cement.

• It is much more costly than ordinary cement

Uses

• It is used for floor finish and plaster work

• For external rough coating of walls, pointing of brick and stone masonry

• It is used for bridge rails, traffic kerbs and aerodrome markings.

COLOURED CEMENT

• Cement of desired colour may be obtained by initimately mixing colouring

material with ordinary cement

• Chromium oxide gives green colour

• Cobalt gives blue colour

• Iron oxide gives brown colour

• Amount of colouring material should not exceed 10 percent

Uses

• These are widely used for finishing of floors, external surface etc

• For plastering walls

• Used in the manufacture of tiles and cast stones

33
 • Used for Terrazzo floor finish, swimming pools, garden paths, tennis
courts

11. EXPLAIN THE PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT.

Properties of Cement

• The color of cement should be uniform

• Cement should be free from lumps

• Cement should be uniform when touched. Cement should be cool when felt with hand

• If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a bucket of water, it should sink.

• Average compressive strength of cement mortar should not be less than 11.5 N/mm 2
at the age of 3 days and 2.5 N/mm2 at the age of 7 days

• Average tensile strength of cement mortar should not be less than 2 N/mm2 at the age
of 3 days and 2.5 N/mm2 at the age of 7 days

• Weight of magnesia in cement should not exceed 5 percent

• It is an excellent binding material

• It gives strength to masonry work

• It possesses a good plasticity

• If offers a good resistance to moisture

• It is easily workable

• It hardens quickly after adding of water

• Initial setting time of good cement is not less than 30 minutes and final setting time is
not to be more than 600 minutes

• Specific gravity of cement should be 3.15

Uses of Cement

• Cement is used for constructing engineering structures where great

strength is required such as dams, bridges, storage reservoirs etc

• Cement is used for making joints for pipes, drains etc

34
 • Cement is used for preparation of foundations, foot paths etc

• Cement is used for manufacturing of precast pipes, piles, fencing posts etc.

• Cement concrete is used for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels,
pillars, stairs, beams, water tanks, wells, septic tanks, runways etc

• Cement mortars plastering is used for protecting outer faces of structures

from weather

12. EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TEST CONDUCTED ON CEMENT.

Basically two types of tests are under taken for assessing the quality of cement. These are
either field test or lab tests. The current section describes these tests in details.

FIELD TEST

There are four field tests may be carried out to ascertain roughly the quality of cement. There
are four types of field tests to access the colour, physical property, and strength of the cement
as described below.

Colour

• The colour of cement should be uniform.

• It should be typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade.

Physical properties

• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.

• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.

Presence of lumps

• Cement should be free from lumps.

Strength

• A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept
under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.

LABORATORY TESTS

35
Six laboratory tests are conducted mainly for assessing the quality of cement. These are:
fineness, compressive strength, consistency, setting time, soundness and tensile strength.

Fineness

• This test is carried out to check proper grinding of cement.

• The fineness of cement particles may be determined either by sieve test or

permeability apparatus test.

• In sieve test, the cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed
for 15 minutes through standard BIS sieve no. 9.The residue is then weighed and
this weight should not be more than 10% of original weight.

• In permeability apparatus test, specific area of cement particles is calculated. This

test is better than sieve test. The specific surface acts as a measure of the
frequency of particles of average size.

Compressive strength

• This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.

• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio 1:3.

• Water is added to mortar in water cement ratio 0.4.

• The mortar is placed in moulds. The test specimens are in the form of cubes and
the moulds are of metals. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes, the cement required is
185gm and 235 gm respectively.

• Then the mortar is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the moulds
are placed in a damp cabin for 24 hours.

• The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean
water for curing.

• The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3days and
7 days. Thus compressive strength was found out.

Consistency

• The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required for
preparing cement pastes for other tests.

36
 • Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 percent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.

• Mix water and cement thoroughly.

• Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75 to 4.25
minutes.

• Vicat apparatus consists of a needle is attached to a movable rod with an indicator

attached to it.

• The plunger is attached to the movable rod. The plunger is gently lowered on the
paste in the mould.

• The settlement of plunger is noted. If the penetration is between 5 mm to 7 mm

from the bottom of mould, the water added is correct. If not process is repeated
with different percentages of water till the desired penetration is obtained.

Setting time

• The test is performed to find out initial setting time and final setting time.

• Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould.

• Square needle is attached to moving rod of vicat apparatus.

• The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In
the beginning the needle penetrates completely. The procedure is repeated at
regular intervals till the needle does not penetrate completely. (upto 5mm from
bottom)

• Initial setting time =<30min for ordinary Portland cement and 60 min for low heat
cement.

• The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.

• The needle with annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat
apparatus.

• The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an impression
on test block and the collar fails to do so is noted.

• Final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to
cement and time as recorded in previous step, and it is =<10hours.
37
Soundness

• The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in the
cement.

• The cement paste is prepared.

• The mould is placed and it is filled by cement paste.

• It is covered at top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at top and the
whole assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours.

• The distance between the points of indicator is noted. The mould is again placed
in water and heat is applied in such a way that boiling point of water is reached in
about 30 minutes. The boiling of water is continued for one hour.

• The mould is removed from water and it is allowed to cool down.

• The distance between the points of indicator is again measured. The difference
between the two readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not
exceed 10 mm.

Tensile strength

• This test was formerly used to have an indirect indication of compressive strength
of cement.

• The mortar of sand and cement is prepared.

• The water is added to the mortar.

• The mortar is placed in briquette moulds. The mould is filled with mortar and then
a small heap of mortar is formed at its top. It is beaten down by a standard spatula
till water appears on the surface. Same procedure is repeated for the other face of
briquette.

• They are kept in a damp for 24 hours and carefully removed from the moulds.

• They are tested in a testing machine at the end of 3 and 7 days and average is
found out.

MORTAR

1. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON MORTAR.

38
Mortar is a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a mixture of cement (or
lime) and fine aggregate (sand). The durability, quality and strength of mortar depends on the
quantity and quality of the ingredients.

2. LIST OUT THE TYPES OF MORTAR.

1. Cement mortar

2. Cement surki mortar

3. Lime mortar

4. Fat lime mortar

5. Hydraulic lime mortar

6. Fire-resistance mortar

7. Mud clay mortar

8. Lime surki mortar

3. WHAT ARE THE USES OF MORTAR?

1. Mainly used as binding material in masonry

2. It is used for pointing of masonry works

3. It is used for plastering of different structures like walls, beams, statues, columns
etc

4. It is used for floor and floor finishes

5. It is used for aesthetic works like stone facing, tile-facing etc.

4. WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF A GOOD MORTAR?

i. A mortar should be easily workable

ii. It should set quickly for speedy construction

iii. The joints formed by mortar should not develop cracks.

iv. It should resist the penetration of rain water.

5. WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS CLASSIFICATIONS OF MORTAR? EXPLAIN.

The major classifications of mortar are

39
 1. Bricklaying mortar

2. Finishing mortar

3. Fire resistant mortar

4. Light weight mortar

Bricklaying mortar

1. It is used for brickwork and walls.

2. Depending upon the working conditions and the type of construction, the
binding materials for the mortar is decided.

Finishing mortar

1. These mortars include common plastering work and ornamental effects.

2. Cement or lime is used as the binding material for ordinary plastering mortar.

Fire resistant mortar

1. It is prepared by adding aluminous cement to the finely crushed powder of fire

bricks.

2. The usual proportion is one part aluminous cement to two parts fire brick
powders.

Light weight mortar

1. It is prepared by adding materials such as saw dust, wood powder, etc.,

2. Other materials could be asbestos, fibres, coir etc., this mortar is used for
sound proof and heat proof construction.

6. EXPLAIN THE PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT MORTAR.

Properties of Cement Mortar

• It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as
bricks, stones etc.
• It should be capable of resisting penetration of rain water.
• It should be cheap, durable and workable
• It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.

40
 • It should set quickly so that speed in construction may be achieved.
• The joints formed by mortar should not develop cracks and they should be able to
maintain their appearance for a sufficiently long period.

• A mix richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.

• Well-proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.

• The strength of mortar depends upon the proportion of cement and sand. Strengths
obtained with various proportion of cement and sand is shown in Table

Uses of Cement Mortar

• To bind masonry units like stone, bricks, cement blocks.

• To plaster slab and walls make them impervious.

• To give neat finishing to walls and concrete works.

• For pointing masonry joints.

• For preparing building blocks.

• As a filler material in Ferro cement works.

• To fill joints and cracks in walls.

• As a filler material in stone masonry.

CONCRETE

1. DEFINE CONCRETE

41
Concrete is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water in the required
proportions

2. STATE THE USES OF CONCRETE.

• To get a level surface below foundations

• For mass concrete works such as bridge, abutments, piers etc.

• For foundation concrete

• For flooring

• To make reinforced cement concrete

• For making precast units

3. HOW CONCRETE IS DESIGNATED BY GRADE?

• Concrete is designated as M10, M15, M20, M30, M40, M50 etc.

• M stands for mix and 15 indicate the characteristics compressive strength N/mm2
of 15 cm concrete cube after 28 days curing.

4. WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF A CONCRETE?

i. Cement concrete should have a high compressive strength.

ii. It is free from corrosion.

iii. It should be capable of resisting abrasion.

iv. A good concrete should shrink initially due to the loss of water.

5. LIST THE TESTS CARRIED OUT ON CEMENT CONCRETE.

1. Slump cone test

2. Compressive strength test

3. Tensile strength test

4. Flexural strength test

6. WHAT IS CEMENT CONCRETE?

It is a mixture of cement, sand, crushed rock and water in a proper proportion. It becomes
hard like a stone, when it is allowed to cure.
42
7. WHAT IS RCC? WHAT IS THE ADVANTAGE OF RCC OVER CEMENT
CONCRETE?

The expansion of RCC is Reinforced Cement Concrete. Plain concrete is very weak in
tension and cannot be used directly in the construction of lintels, roofs, slabs etc,, because the
bottom fibres are subject to tensile stresses. A combination of concrete and steel is known as
reinforced cement concrete and is widely used in construction.

8. LIST THE ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE.

▪ RCC is tough and durable.

▪ RCC construction is easy and fast.

▪ The ingredient materials used for preparing RCC are easily available.

▪ Maintenance of RCC roofs, slabs are easy.

9. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE.

Light weight concrete has a density ranging from 300 – 1850 kg/m3. It has a low thermal
conductivity. It is prepared by replacing the usual mineral aggregate by cellular porous and
light weight aggregate. Natural light weight aggregates are pumice, diatomite, scoria,
volcanic cinders, saw dust and rice husk.

10. WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE?

Properties of Fresh Concrete

When concrete is its plastic state it is known as fresh concrete. Fresh concrete can be easily
moulded to a durable structural member. Following are the properties of fresh concrete.

• Workability
• Segregation
• Bleeding
• Plastic shrinkage
• Setting
• Temperature
• Water Cement Ratio
43
 • Workability

The term workability indicates the ease or difficulty with which the concrete is handled,
transported and placed. The amount of water present in concrete should be in the proper ratio.

Generally, a higher water-cement ratio is required for good workability. The concrete which
is easy for handling and placing is a workable concrete. The tests such as flow test,
compacting test and slump cone test is done to determine the workability of the concrete
mixture.

Segregation

Segregation is the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. Dropping of concrete

from heights as well as discharging of concrete from badly designed mixer shows a tendency
for segregation.

Bleeding is a particular form of segregation, in which some of the water from the concrete
comes out to the surface of the concrete.

Plastic shrinkage

After the fresh concrete has been placed in forms, concrete undergoes a volumetric
contraction while it is in a plastic state (before the concrete set). This is known as plastic
Shrinkage. It can starts after 30 minutes of concrete pouring or during finishing.

Setting

When concrete changes its state from plastic to hardened state, this process is called setting.
The duration which concrete takes to change its state is called setting time. Setting time
depends on the type of cement and it can be increase or decrease by adding admixture in
concrete.

Temperature

Concrete is not recommended to be placed at a temperature above 40°C.Special problems are

encountered in the preparation, placement and curing of concrete in hot weather. High
temperature results in rapid hydration of cement, increased evaporation of mixing water,
greater mixing water demand, and large volume changes resulting in cracks.

Water Cement Ratio

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The ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement by weight is termed the water-
cement ratio. The strength and quality of concrete depend on this ratio.

The quantity of water is usually expressed in litre per bag of cement. If water required for one
bag of cement is 30 litres, the water-cement ratio is equal to 30/50 = 0.6.

10. WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE?

A hardened concrete must possess the following properties,

• Strength is defined as the resistance of a hardened concrete to rupture under different

loadings and is accordingly designated in different ways i.e., tensile strength,
compressive strength, flexural strength, etc. A good quality concrete in hardened state
must possess the desired crushing strength.

• Durability is defined as the period of time up to which concrete in hardened state

withstands the weathering effects satisfactorily. This property is mainly affected
by water cement ratio. A good quality concrete in hardened state must be durable.

• The impermeability of hardened concrete may be defined as the property to resist-

entry of water. This property is achieved by using extra quantity of cement in concrete
mix. A concrete in hardened state must be impermeable.

• Elasticity. Though hardened concrete is a brittle / material, it is desired that it should

possess adequate elasticity.

• Shrinkage. A hardened concrete should experience least shrinkage. This property is

guided by water cement ratio. Shrinkage is less if the water cement ratio is less.

• Thermal expansion. A hardened concrete should possess least coefficient of

expansion.

11. STATE THE USES OF CONCRETE.

• It’s an important building product. Concrete is chosen over wood as a construction

material.
• It is a durable and cost-effective material which is a necessity for underground use.
• Concrete is a sustainable choice for residential and commercial projects.
• The strength of concrete increases over time.
• Concrete can hold up against weather condition and is easy to maintain.
• Concrete is safe for building occupants.
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 • Concrete is an inert material which doesn’t burn, mildew or feed rot.
• Its superior structural integrity provides added degree of protection from the severe
weather as well as an earthquake.
• Concrete is fire resistant. It can resist extreme level of flames and heat which is a
good choice of the ceiling in a storage room.
• Concrete can be shaped in various forms when freshly mixed.
• Concrete isn’t sensitive to moisture.
• Concrete gives a longer service life.
• It keeps home safe from insects. It doesn’t attract insect pest and rodents. That’s why
small animals cannot burrow through the concrete to make a home.
• High-performance concrete is used to build bridges.
• Concrete is able to accommodate steel reinforcements in gates, tunnel lines, electrical
controls.

STEEL

1. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON STEEL SECTIONS USED IN CONSTRUCTION.

Since the steel has ductile and has elastic properties, mild steel having a carbon content of 0.1
– 0.25 percent is used for structural work. The various shapes of steel sections used are
shown in figure.

SHS: Square Hollow Section; RHS: Rectangular Hollow Section.

2. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON TOR STEEL RODS.

Torsteel rods are twisted or torsioned deformed rods. Ordinary steel rods are round plain bars
made of mild steel. Both plain bars and tor steel rods are used in RCC roof slabs, beams,
columns.

3. EXPLAIN BRIEFLY ABOUT THE STEEL, ITS CLASSIFICATION AND USES IN

CONSTRUCTION.

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Steel contains carbon upto a maximum of 1.5 percent.
Based on the carbon content, steel are classified into,

i. Low carbon steel (Mild steel) with carbon content 0.25 percent.

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 ii. Medium carbon or medium hard steel with carbon content between 0.25 –
0.70 percent

iii. High carbon steel or hard steel having carbon content 0.70 – 1.5 percent.

Manufacture of steel

There are five processes by which steel is manufactured

1. Bessemer process

2. Cementation process

3. Open hearth process

4. Electric process

5. Duplex process

Properties of Steel

Steel has a number of properties, including: hardness, toughness, tensile strength, yield
strength, elongation, fatigue strength, corrosion, plasticity, malleability and creep. The
properties that are most important in wear and abrasion-resistant steel are:

HARDNESS is the material’s ability to withstand friction and abrasion. It is worth noting
that, while it may mean the same as strength and toughness in colloquial language, this is
very different from strength and toughness in the context of metal properties.

TOUGHNESS is difficult to define but generally is the ability to absorb energy without
fracturing or rupturing. It is also defined as a material’s resistance to fracture when stressed.
It is usually measured in foot lbs. per sq. in or Joules per sq. centimeter. It is important to
distinguish this from hardness as a material that severely deforms without breaking, could be
considered extremely tough, but not hard.

YEILD strength is a measurement of the force required to start the deformation of the
material (i.e. bending or warping).

TENSILE strength is a measurement of the force required to break the material.

ELONGATION (or Ductility) is the “Degree” to which the material can be stretched or
compressed before it breaks. It is expressed as a percent of the length being tested and is

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between the tensile strength and yield strength (i.e. what percent does the material bend
before breaking).

WELDABILITY is a property of steel that greatly affects how easily it can be used in
construction and fabrication. A steels weldability determines how easily a material can be
welded. Materials with low weldability are likely to crack due to the local stresses caused
from heating at the weld joint. A materials weldability is inversely correlated to the materials
hardenability. This is because if a material is hardenable it will tend to harden during the
welding process which can increase the brittleness and lead to cracking due to local thermal
strain.

Uses of Steel

Steel applications can be divided into seven primary market sectors. The figures are the
percentages of steel production dedicated to them, according to the World Steel
Association (WSA):

1. Buildings and infrastructure, 51%

2. Mechanical equipment, 15%
3. Automotive, 12%
4. Metal products, 11%
5. Other transport, 5%
6. Domestic appliances, 3%
7. Electrical equipment, 3%

Buildings and Infrastructure

More than half of the steel produced annually is used to construct buildings and infrastructure
such as bridges. According to the WSA, most of the steel used in this sector is found in
reinforcing bars (44%); sheet products, including those used in roofs, internal walls, and
ceilings (31%); and structural sections (25%).

In addition to those structural applications, steel is also used in buildings for HVAC
systems and in items such as stairs, rails, and shelving.

Steel of various types can be designed to meet the unique requirements of individual
infrastructure projects, allowing it to be incorporated into components in all kinds of

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environments. Depending on the conditions that the structure is exposed to, either a particular
steel alloy or a surface treatment can be used.

Besides bridges, applications for steel in transportation-related infrastructure include tunnels,

rail track, fueling stations, train stations, ports, and airports. The WSA says approximately
60% of steel use in this area is as rebar, a ridged steel bar placed inside reinforced concrete.

Steel is also widely used in utility infrastructure, including for fuels, water, and, electricity.
The WSA states that half of the steel used for utility infrastructure is in the form
of underground pipes for water or natural gas.

Rail tracks typically last 30-35 years, according to the WSA.

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