Materials and their structure

. Hypothesis… it is an idea for explaining something

. Theory….. is made from hypothesis has been tested and widely accepted

. Vacuum: means space with no particles. Empty

Particle Theory says:

Matter is made of tiny particles, that are arranged differently in solids,
liquids, gases.

States of Matter
Matter is anything we see or feel. There are 3 states of Matter: They have
different PROPERTIES as they behave differently

SOLIDS
Have a fixed shape
Take the same amount of space and keep same volume
Cannot be compressed or squashed or poured
Particles are fixed and tightly held together.
Particles can vibrate a little but stay in place.

LIQUIDS
Can change shape and they take the shape of the container
They take the same space
Cannot be compressed. Can be poured
Particles are held together weakly. They can move touching each
other

GASES
They fill the container
Volume can change, shape can change
Weight very light
We cannot see or feel them, only smell
Particles are apart from each other, they spread out
Solid

Liquid

Gas
Change of State

- Evaporation …… Liquid to Gas:

when a liquid is heated it evaporates.
particles in liquids are held weakly , so heat moves them, and they break
and escape.
water boils at 100 degree, turns into steam, its called “boiling point”

- Condensing …… Gas to Liquid:

When a gas cools or touches a cold surface the heat transfers to it. Then
particles move less and get closer, becoming liquid: the gas condenses.
e.g. the steam of a hot shower when touches the mirror, gets liquid

- Melting …… Solid to Liquid:

the temperature needed to melt a solid is called “melting point”

when we HEAT solids they expand: as heat energy is transferred to the

particles it makes them vibrate more, and the solid gets bigger.

If we heat SOLIDS strongly they MELT, turning liquid, because heat makes
particles vibrate so much that their bonding gets weak, and particles
cannot hold each other: they start moving.

- Freezing …… Liquid to Solid:

Liquid becomes solid when freezes. Like water to ice.
When a liquids looses heat its particles loose energy and move slower
until they stop moving. Now they only vibrate, and turn like a solid.

Volume
Volume of liquid is measured with a measuring cylinder. The curve formed
at the top is called meniscus

Temperature
We use a thermometer. Its liquid rises with heat and we read its scale

Water Cycle
Water is vital for life. Our bodies are 60% water.
Water on earth is always moving between rivers, lakes, oceans, atmosphere and
land. It is recycled continuously for millions of years.
 1. Water moves to the atmosphere
The Sun heats the earth, and with enough heat energy some water
particles break down and get free so some water evaporates and goes up.
Water also evaporates from plants to the atmosphere “transpiration “

2. Water in the atmosphere cools down.

As water in the air cools its particles loose energy and cannot move, so
water condenses forming droplets that make clouds.
Air moves the clouds around the world.

3. Water falls from clouds

When lot of water condenses it gets heavy and air cannot hold it. The
droplets fall back as rain.
“Precipitation”..: if drops get very cold they make snow.

4. Water falls on earth

Water collects in river, lakes and oceans. Soon it will evaporate and water
cycle will start again.
If it falls on plants, it can enter the ground feeding the roots, or also go
back to the air from the leaves.

5. Ground water
Water that enters the ground and rocks forming groundwater. Some will
move to rivers, some will store under the ground.
Glaciers form in cold seasons and when they melt water also enters the
ground or go to rivers.
..”surface run-off”….Ground water surfaces and flows direct into rivers or
oceans. When they carry soil they can block rivers

Atoms, Elements. Periodic Table

ATOM
Greek philosopher Democritus said that the smallest piece of a substance is
an atom. Atom is the smallest part of an element that can exist and take
part is a chemical reaction

Atom Types:
94 types have been discovered, and 24 types are made in laboratory

Element: Substance formed by one type of atoms.

 Atoms joining
In most elements like Gold, some metals…atoms are held closely
together
In 6 elements like Neon gas, they move around freely.
In some elements, like O2, sulfur, atoms are joined forming small
particles.

Periodic Table:
Contains 118 known elements (94 natural & 24 man made)….see book
pg 54-56

COMPOUND
A substance made of different types of atoms that are joined tightly by
chemical bonding.

The elements that form the compound lose their properties,

e.g. Sodium + Clorine = Sodium Cloride ….All are different!

……………….pg58

e,g. iron + sulfur =iron sulfide

iron (metal) is hard, conducts electricity
sulfur in non-metal, does not conduct electricity,
iron + sulfur = iron sulfide….Does not conduct electricity
Compounds have chemical NAMES that often end in “…ide”
the name tell us the elements that form it.
. Metal name will come first
. Names of Non-metals change
. compounds of 3 elements end in “ate” (Calcium+Oxigen +Carbon =
calcium carbonate)
. “Di” means 2 atoms, “Mono” means 1 atom ………………activity pg 60 !

A Particle diagram tells us which atoms and elements form a particle. If we

see different kind of atoms then it is a compound: e.g. carbone dioxide,
water, methane

Formulae
Compounds have chemical names, some have common names, like ‘salt’
(sodium chloride)

Compounds have a formula, with the symbols of the elements.

Calcium Oxide CaO

Carbon dioxide CO2
Carbon monoxide CO
Hydrogen sulfide H2S
Calcium carbonate CaCo3
Sodium hydroxide NaOH

(number are no of atoms, if there is no number it means 1)

Mixtures
A mixture is not pure: it contains more than 1 substance. It is a mix of
molecules of elements and compounds without mixed chemical bond.

Examples: Air, mineral water, mango shake, toothpaste.

Example: Air contains O2, CO2, water gases….where the amount of carbon
and water can change with weather and pollution. Pollution increases CO2 in
air…..see pg 68

Forces & Energy

Gravity
is a fundamental force of attraction between things that have mass.
A bigger mass has more gravity.
Gravity acts towards the centre of the object, and weakens as we move far.

Weight
It is the force of gravity on an object, measured in Newtons (N)
Gravity pulls objects towards its centre. When we lift them, we pull against
gravity.. i.e., Apple weight is 1N, so earth gravity pulls on it with 1 N force.

My weight outside earth:

An objects Weight changes with gravity. The Mass does NOT change.
So my weight in the moon changes.

Contact force
It is the force that supports an object on a surface. E.g. a book placed on a
table.
Contact force is the weight of the object when the surface is still.
If object weight > contact force, then the surface breaks and object will
sink.

Mass: Quantity of matter in an object, measured in Kg

Weight of 1 kg Mass on earth is 10N

So, Weigh of a person of 45kg Mass = 45x10 = 450 N

Weight (N) = Mass (Kg) x 10 (N/kg) // W = m x 10 // Formula

triangle
W
m x 10

Solar System
. Planets follow an orbit around the Sun in the same direction, in a flat
plane

. Sun & planets spin on their axes in the direction in which planets orbit
the Sun (except Venus, Uranus)

. Most Moons orbit their planet.

Stars birth
Stars form from nebulas, which are clouds of dust and gas
Dust and gas particles pull on each other due to their gravity, so their
mass and gravity increases, which attracts more dust.
Then they start to form a ball which gets bigger,

If it gets very big it can become a star

If not, then it will form a planet.

Model: It represents something that we cannot observe. It is like a

calculation.
Movement in space
The sun is the largest mass in the solar system, with gravity 27 times
more than earth.
Its gravity holds all planets in orbit, and is stronger on the near ones.
Planets orbits are circular

Speed in space
On earth, a moving object is slowed down by Air Resistance, because it
has to push against air particles

Space is a vacuum: there is no air, no particles. So planets face no air

resistance, and the only force that moves them is gravity.

Tides
A tide forms when the dept of the ocean changes during the day, because of
the Moon’s gravity, which pulls the earth and its water with tidal force.

So the side of the Earth closer to the Moon will have a high tide.

Dept is the distance from the bottom of the ocean to the water level.

Tidal range = difference in high and low tides.

High tides become low tides each 6 h.
The time between high tides is 12 h

The largest tide is 16.3m in Bay of Fundy, Canada.

Earth tide: when land changes its height through the day

The Sun also produces tidal force on the earth but weaker than the Moon.
When Sun, Moon and Earth are in line, a very strong tidal force is produced

Effects of tides

Some ports can only be used at certain times of the day, when water is deep
enough for the ships to sail. Sometimes there is no water during low tide.
High tides can flood coastal areas with water, and cause volcanos and
earthquakes.

Some Practice………………………….

Difference between Compound and Mixture

Compound is a substance formed chemically by 2 or more elements
Mixture is a substance formed physically mixing 2 or more
substances.

Identify mixture / compounds:

Sand and Soil…………… MIXTURE Mango juice……………. MIXTURE
Carbon dioxide…………..COMPOUND Water……………………….
COMPOUND
Milk………………………… MIXTURE Water and Salt solution……
MIXTURE
Iron Sulphide………………. COMPOUND

Q. A robot of 100 kg mass is built on earth where gravity is 9.8/kg.

If the robot goes to Mars, where gravity is 3.7/kg what is the robot’s weight
on both places:

Weight on Earth:
W=mxg
W = 100 x 9.8
W = 980 N

Weight on Mars:
W=mxg
W = 100 x 3.7
W = 370 N