Pythagorean theorem

In mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem or Pythagoras' theorem is a fundamental relation in

Euclidean geometry between the three sides of a right triangle. It states that the area of the square
whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of
the squares on the other two sides.

The theorem can be written as an equation relating the lengths of the sides a, b and the hypotenuse
c, sometimes called the Pythagorean equation:[1]

The theorem is named for the Greek philosopher Pythagoras, born around 570 BC. The theorem has
been proved numerous times by many different methods – possibly the most for any mathematical
theorem. The proofs are diverse, including both geometric proofs and algebraic proofs, with some
dating back thousands of years.

When Euclidean space is represented by a Cartesian coordinate system in analytic geometry,

Euclidean distance satisfies the Pythagorean relation: the squared distance between two points
equals the sum of squares of the difference in each coordinate between the points.

The theorem can be generalized in various ways: to higher-dimensional spaces, to spaces that are
not Euclidean, to objects that are not right triangles, and to objects that are not triangles at all but n-
dimensional solids.
Proofs using constructed Pythagorean theorem

squares

Type Theorem

Rearrangement proof of the Pythagorean theorem. Field Euclidean geometry

(The area of the white space remains constant throughout
the translation rearrangement of the triangles. At all Statement The sum of the areas
moments in time, the area is always c2. And likewise, at all of the two squares on
moments in time, the area is always a2 + b2.) the legs (a and b)
equals the area of the
Rearrangement proofs square on the
hypotenuse (c).
In one rearrangement proof, two squares are used
whose sides have a measure of and which Symbolic statement

contain four right triangles whose sides are a, b

Generalizations Law of cosines
and c, with the hypotenuse being c. In the square
Solid geometry
on the right side, the triangles are placed such
Non-Euclidean
that the corners of the square correspond to the geometry
corners of the right angle in the triangles, forming Differential geometry
a square in the center whose sides are length c.
Consequences Pythagorean triple
Each outer square has an area of as
Reciprocal
well as , with representing the total Pythagorean theorem
area of the four triangles. Within the big square Complex number
on the left side, the four triangles are moved to Euclidean distance
form two similar rectangles with sides of length a Pythagorean
and b. These rectangles in their new position trigonometric identity

have now delineated two new squares, one

having side length a is formed in the bottom-left corner, and another square of side length b formed
in the top-right corner. In this new position, this left side now has a square of area as well
as . Since both squares have the area of it follows that the other measure
of the square area also equal each other such that = . With the area of the
[2]
four triangles removed from both side of the equation what remains is

In another proof rectangles in the second box can also be placed such that both have one corner
that correspond to consecutive corners of the square. In this way they also form two boxes, this
time in consecutive corners, with areas and which will again lead to a second square of with
the area .

English mathematician Sir Thomas Heath gives this proof in his commentary on Proposition I.47 in
Euclid's Elements, and mentions the proposals of German mathematicians Carl Anton Bretschneider
and Hermann Hankel that Pythagoras may have known this proof. Heath himself favors a different
proposal for a Pythagorean proof, but acknowledges from the outset of his discussion "that the
Greek literature which we possess belonging to the first five centuries after Pythagoras contains no
statement specifying this or any other particular great geometric discovery to him."[3] Recent
scholarship has cast increasing doubt on any sort of role for Pythagoras as a creator of
mathematics, although debate about this continues.[4]
Algebraic proofs

Diagram of the two algebraic

proofs

The theorem can be proved algebraically using four copies of the same triangle arranged
symmetrically around a square with side c, as shown in the lower part of the diagram.[5] This results
in a larger square, with side a + b and area (a + b)2. The four triangles and the square side c must
have the same area as the larger square,

giving

A similar proof uses four copies of a right triangle with sides a, b and c, arranged inside a square
with side c as in the top half of the diagram.[6] The triangles are similar with area , while the
small square has side b − a and area (b − a)2. The area of the large square is therefore

But this is a square with side c and area c2, so

Other proofs of the theorem

This theorem may have more known proofs than any other (the law of quadratic reciprocity being
another contender for that distinction); the book The Pythagorean Proposition contains 370 proofs.[7]

Proof using similar triangles

Proof using similar triangles

This proof is based on the proportionality of the sides of three similar triangles, that is, upon the fact
that the ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar triangles is the same regardless of the size
of the triangles.

Let ABC represent a right triangle, with the right angle located at C, as shown on the figure. Draw the
altitude from point C, and call H its intersection with the side AB. Point H divides the length of the
hypotenuse c into parts d and e. The new triangle, ACH, is similar to triangle ABC, because they both
have a right angle (by definition of the altitude), and they share the angle at A, meaning that the third
angle will be the same in both triangles as well, marked as θ in the figure. By a similar reasoning, the
triangle CBH is also similar to ABC. The proof of similarity of the triangles requires the triangle
postulate: The sum of the angles in a triangle is two right angles, and is equivalent to the parallel
postulate. Similarity of the triangles leads to the equality of ratios of corresponding sides:

The first result equates the cosines of the angles θ, whereas the second result equates their sines.

These ratios can be written as

Summing these two equalities results in

which, after simplification, demonstrates the Pythagorean theorem:

The role of this proof in history is the subject of much speculation. The underlying question is why
Euclid did not use this proof, but invented another. One conjecture is that the proof by similar
triangles involved a theory of proportions, a topic not discussed until later in the Elements, and that
the theory of proportions needed further development at that time.[8]

Einstein's proof by dissection without rearrangement

Right triangle on the hypotenuse

dissected into two similar right
triangles on the legs, according to
Einstein's proof.

Albert Einstein gave a proof by dissection in which the pieces do not need to be moved.[9] Instead of
using a square on the hypotenuse and two squares on the legs, one can use any other shape that
includes the hypotenuse, and two similar shapes that each include one of two legs instead of the
hypotenuse (see Similar figures on the three sides). In Einstein's proof, the shape that includes the
hypotenuse is the right triangle itself. The dissection consists of dropping a perpendicular from the
vertex of the right angle of the triangle to the hypotenuse, thus splitting the whole triangle into two
parts. Those two parts have the same shape as the original right triangle, and have the legs of the
original triangle as their hypotenuses, and the sum of their areas is that of the original triangle.
Because the ratio of the area of a right triangle to the square of its hypotenuse is the same for
similar triangles, the relationship between the areas of the three triangles holds for the squares of
the sides of the large triangle as well.
19. Published in a weekly mathematics column: James A Garfield (1876). "Pons Asinorum" (http://
www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/mathematical-treasure-james-a-garfields-proof-
of-the-pythagorean-theorem) . The New England Journal of Education. 3 (14): 161. as noted in
William Dunham (1997). The mathematical universe: An alphabetical journey through the great
proofs, problems, and personalities (https://books.google.com/books?id=3tG_FRQ9N1QC&q=N
ew+England+Journal) . Wiley. p. 96. ISBN 0-471-17661-3. and in A calendar of mathematical
dates: April 1, 1876 (http://www.math.usma.edu/people/rickey/hm/Dates/April.pdf) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100714153516/http://www.math.usma.edu/people/Rickey/h
m/Dates/April.pdf) July 14, 2010, at the Wayback Machine by V. Frederick Rickey

20. Lantz, David. "Garfield's proof of the Pythagorean Theorem" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013

0828104818/http://math.colgate.edu/faculty/dlantz/Pythpfs/Garfldpf.html) .
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21. Maor, Eli, The Pythagorean Theorem, Princeton University Press, 2007: pp. 106-107.

22. Mike Staring (1996). "The Pythagorean proposition: A proof by means of calculus".
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23. Bogomolny, Alexander. "Pythagorean Theorem" (https://web.archive.org/web/2010070620093

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26. Euclid's Elements, Book I, Proposition 48 (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/boo

kI/propI48.html) From D.E. Joyce's web page (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/element
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27. Casey, Stephen, "The converse of the theorem of Pythagoras", Mathematical Gazette 92, July
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32. Law, Henry (1853). "Corollary 5 of Proposition XLVII (Pythagoras's Theorem)" (https://books.go
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38. Lawrence S. Leff (2005). PreCalculus the Easy Way (https://archive.org/details/precalculuseasy

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42. Heath, T. L., A History of Greek Mathematics, Oxford University Press, 1921; reprinted by Dover,
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43. Euclid's Elements: Book VI, Proposition VI 31: "In right-angled triangles the figure on the side
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48. Judith D. Sally; Paul Sally (2007-12-21). "Exercise 2.10 (ii)" (https://books.google.com/books?id
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49. For the details of such a construction, see Jennings, George (1997). "Figure 1.32: The
generalized Pythagorean theorem". Modern geometry with applications: with 150 figures (http
s://archive.org/details/moderngeometrywi0000jenn) (3rd ed.). Springer. p. 23 (https://archiv
e.org/details/moderngeometrywi0000jenn/page/23) . ISBN 0-387-94222-X.

50. Claudi Alsina, Roger B. Nelsen: Charming Proofs: A Journey Into Elegant Mathematics. MAA,
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52. For an extended discussion of this generalization, see, for example, Willie W. Wong (http://ww
w.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~ww278/papers/gp.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20091
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54. Qun Lin; Jiafu Lin (2006). Finite element methods: accuracy and improvement (https://books.go
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56. Karen Saxe (2002). "Theorem 1.2" (https://books.google.com/books?id=QALoZC64ea0C&pg=P

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58. Donald R Conant & William A Beyer (Mar 1974). "Generalized Pythagorean Theorem". The
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59. Eric W. Weisstein (2003). CRC concise encyclopedia of mathematics (https://books.google.co
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60. Alexander R. Pruss (2006). The principle of sufficient reason: a reassessment (https://books.go
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we could instead make the Pythagorean theorem among the other axioms and derive the
parallel postulate."

61. Stephen W. Hawking (2005). cited work (https://books.google.com/books?id=3zdFSOS3f4AC&

pg=PA4) . Running Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-7624-1922-9.

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66. Tai L. Chow (2000). Mathematical methods for physicists: a concise introduction. Cambridge
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67. Neugebauer 1969, p. 36.

68. Neugebauer 1969: p. 36 "In other words it was known during the whole duration of Babylonian
mathematics that the sum of the squares on the lengths of the sides of a right triangle equals
the square of the length of the hypotenuse."
69. Friberg, Jöran (1981). "Methods and traditions of Babylonian mathematics: Plimpton 322,
Pythagorean triples, and the Babylonian triangle parameter equations" (https://www.researchg
ate.net/publication/222892801) . Historia Mathematica. 8: 277–318. doi:10.1016/0315-
0860(81)90069-0 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2881%2990069-0) .: p. 306
"Although Plimpton 322 is a unique text of its kind, there are several other known texts
testifying that the Pythagorean theorem was well known to the mathematicians of the Old
Babylonian period."

70. Høyrup, Jens. "Pythagorean 'Rule' and 'Theorem' – Mirror of the Relation Between Babylonian
and Greek Mathematics". In Renger, Johannes (ed.). Babylon: Focus mesopotamischer
Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamkeit, Mythos in der Moderne. 2. Internationales Colloquium
der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 24.–26. März 1998 in Berlin (http://akira.ruc.dk/~jensh/Public
ations/Pythrule.pdf) (PDF). Berlin: Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft / Saarbrücken: SDV
Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag. pp. 393–407., p. 406, "To judge from this evidence alone it is
therefore likely that the Pythagorean rule was discovered within the lay surveyors’ environment,
possibly as a spin-off from the problem treated in Db2-146, somewhere between 2300 and
1825 BC." (Db2-146 is an Old Babylonian clay tablet from Eshnunna concerning the
computation of the sides of a rectangle given its area and diagonal.)

71. Robson, E. (2008). Mathematics in Ancient Iraq: A Social History. Princeton University Press.: p.
109 "Many Old Babylonian mathematical practitioners … knew that the square on the diagonal
of a right triangle had the same area as the sum of the squares on the length and width: that
relationship is used in the worked solutions to word problems on cut-and-paste ‘algebra’ on
seven different tablets, from Ešnuna, Sippar, Susa, and an unknown location in southern
Babylonia."

72. Robson, Eleanor (2001). "Neither Sherlock Holmes nor Babylon: a reassessment of Plimpton
322" (https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:e3d8eedb-e745-45b3-8612-71f8951599aa) . Historia
Mathematica. 28 (3): 167–206. doi:10.1006/hmat.2001.2317 (https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhma
t.2001.2317) .

73. Kim Plofker (2009). Mathematics in India. Princeton University Press. pp. 17–18 (https://books.
google.com/books?id=DHvThPNp9yMC&pg=PA17) . ISBN 978-0-691-12067-6.

74. Bartel L. van der Waerden (2012). Geometry and Algebra in Ancient Civilizations. Springer
Science & Business Media. p. 26.
75. Carl Benjamin Boyer; Uta C. Merzbach (2011). "China and India". A history of mathematics (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=bR9HAAAAQBAJ) (3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 229. ISBN 978-
0470525487. "Quote: [In Sulba-sutras,] we find rules for the construction of right angles by
means of triples of cords the lengths of which form Pythagorean triages, such as 3, 4, and 5, or
5, 12, and 13, or 8, 15, and 17, or 12, 35, and 37. Although Mesopotamian influence in the
Sulvasũtras is not unlikely, we know of no conclusive evidence for or against this. Aspastamba
knew that the square on the diagonal of a rectangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the
two adjacent sides. Less easily explained is another rule given by Apastamba – one that
strongly resembles some of the geometric algebra in Book II of Euclid's Elements. (...)"

76. Proclus (1970). A Commentary of the First Book of Euclid's Elements. Translated by Morrow,
Glenn R. Princeton University Press. 428.6.

77. "Introduction and books 1,2" (https://books.google.com/books?id=UhgPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35

1) . The University Press. March 25, 1908 – via Google Books.

78. (Heath 1921, Vol I, p. 144): "Though this is the proposition universally associated by tradition
with the name of Pythagoras, no really trustworthy evidence exists that it was actually
discovered by him. The comparatively late writers who attribute it to him add the story that he
sacrificed an ox to celebrate his discovery."

79. An extensive discussion of the historical evidence is provided in (Euclid 1956, p. 351)
page=351 (https://books.google.com/books?id=UhgPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA351)

80. Asger Aaboe (1997). Episodes from the early history of mathematics (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=5wGzF0wPFYgC&pg=PA51) . Mathematical Association of America. p. 51.
ISBN 0-88385-613-1. "...it is not until Euclid that we find a logical sequence of general theorems
with proper proofs."

81. Robert P. Crease (2008). The great equations: breakthroughs in science from Pythagoras to
Heisenberg (https://archive.org/details/greatequationsbr0000crea/page/25) . W W Norton &
Co. p. 25 (https://archive.org/details/greatequationsbr0000crea/page/25) . ISBN 978-0-393-
06204-5.

82. A rather extensive discussion of the origins of the various texts in the Zhou Bi is provided by
Christopher Cullen (2007). Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient China: The 'Zhou Bi Suan
Jing'. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139 ff. ISBN 978-0-521-03537-8.
 83. This work is a compilation of 246 problems, some of which survived the book burning of
213 BC, and was put in final form before 100 AD. It was extensively commented upon by Liu
Hui in 263 AD. Philip D. Straffin Jr. (2004). "Liu Hui and the first golden age of Chinese
mathematics" (https://books.google.com/books?id=BKRE5AjRM3AC&pg=PA69) . In Marlow
Anderson; Victor J. Katz; Robin J. Wilson (eds.). Sherlock Holmes in Babylon: and other tales of
mathematical history. Mathematical Association of America. pp. 69 ff. ISBN 0-88385-546-1.
See particularly §3: Nine chapters on the mathematical art, pp. 71 ff.

84. Kangshen Shen; John N. Crossley; Anthony Wah-Cheung Lun (1999). The nine chapters on the
mathematical art: companion and commentary (https://books.google.com/books?id=eiTJHRGT
G6YC&pg=PA488) . Oxford University Press. p. 488. ISBN 0-19-853936-3.

85. In particular, Li Jimin; see Centaurus, Volume 39 (https://books.google.com/books?id=UJlFAAA

AYAAJ&q=%22Shang+Gao+Theorem%22) . Copenhagen: Munksgaard. 1997. pp. 193, 205.

86. Chen, Cheng-Yih (1996). "§3.3.4 Chén Zǐ's formula and the Chóng-Chã method; Figure 40" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=2Wxj0SW9hBgC&pg=PA139) . Early Chinese work in natural
science: a re-examination of the physics of motion, acoustics, astronomy and scientific thoughts.
Hong Kong University Press. p. 142. ISBN 962-209-385-X.

87. Wen-tsün Wu (2008). "The Gougu theorem" (https://books.google.com/books?id=xV4lECaKDz

wC&pg=PA158) . Selected works of Wen-tsün Wu. World Scientific. p. 158. ISBN 978-981-279-
107-8.

Works cited

Bell, John L. (1999). The Art of the Intelligible: An Elementary Survey of Mathematics in its
Conceptual Development (http://publish.uwo.ca/~jbell/) . Kluwer. ISBN 0-7923-5972-0.

Euclid (1956). The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements, Translated from the Text of Heiberg, with
Introduction and Commentary. Vol. 1 (Books I and II). Translated by Heath, Thomas L. (Reprint of
2nd (1925) ed.). Dover. On-line text at archive.org (https://archive.org/details/euclid_heath_2nd_e
d)

Heath, Sir Thomas (1921). "The 'Theorem of Pythagoras' " (https://books.google.com/books?id=h

4JsAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA144) . A History of Greek Mathematics (2 Vols.) (Dover Publications, Inc.
(1981) ed.). Clarendon Press, Oxford. pp. 144 ff. ISBN 0-486-24073-8.

Libeskind, Shlomo (2008). Euclidean and transformational geometry: a deductive inquiry (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=6YUUeO-RjU0C&pg=PA41) . Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-
7637-4366-6. This high-school geometry text covers many of the topics in this WP article.
 Loomis, Elisha Scott (1940). The Pythagorean Proposition (https://archive.org/details/pythagorea
npropo0000loom_b2m3/) (2nd ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan: Edwards Brothers.
ISBN 9780873530361. Reissued 1968 by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. A
lower-quality scan was published online by the Education Resources Information Center, ERIC
ED037335 (http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED037335.pdf) .

Maor, Eli (2007). The Pythagorean Theorem: A 4,000-Year History (https://books.google.com/book

s?id=Z5VoBGy3AoAC) . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-
12526-8.

Neugebauer, Otto (1969). The exact sciences in antiquity (https://books.google.com/books?id=JV

hTtVA2zr8C&pg=PA36) (2nd ed.). Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-22332-9.
OCLC 638685764 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/638685764) .

Robson, Eleanor and Jacqueline Stedall, eds., The Oxford Handbook of the History of
Mathematics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. pp. vii + 918. ISBN 978-0-19-921312-2.

Stillwell, John (1989). Mathematics and Its History (https://archive.org/details/mathematicsitshi0

000stil) . Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-96981-0. Also ISBN 3-540-96981-0.

Swetz, Frank; Kao, T. I. (1977). Was Pythagoras Chinese?: An Examination of Right Triangle Theory
in Ancient China (https://archive.org/details/waspythagoraschi0000swet) . Pennsylvania State
University Press. ISBN 0-271-01238-2.

van der Waerden, Bartel Leendert (1983). Geometry and Algebra in Ancient Civilizations (https://arc
hive.org/details/geometryalgebrai0000waer) . Springer. ISBN 3-540-12159-5. "Pythagorean
triples Babylonian scribes van der Waerden."

External links

Euclid (1997) [c. 300 BC]. David E. Joyce (ed.). Elements (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/el
ements/toc.html) . Retrieved 2006-08-30. In HTML with Java-based interactive figures.

"Pythagorean theorem" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Pythagorean_theor

em) . Encyclopedia of Mathematics. EMS Press. 2001 [1994].

History topic: Pythagoras's theorem in Babylonian mathematics (http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.a

c.uk/~history/PrintHT/Babylonian_Pythagoras.html)

Interactive links:
Interactive proof (http://www.sunsite.ubc.ca/LivingMathematics/V001N01/UBCExamples/Py
thagoras/pythagoras.html) in Java of the Pythagorean theorem
 Another interactive proof (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/Perigal.shtml) in Java of
the Pythagorean theorem

Pythagorean theorem (http://www.mathopenref.com/pythagorastheorem.html) with

interactive animation

Animated, non-algebraic, and user-paced (http://math.ucr.edu/~jdp/Relativity/Pythagorus.ht

ml) Pythagorean theorem

Pythagorean theorem water demo (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CAkMUdeB06o) on

YouTube

Pythagorean theorem (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/index.shtml) (more than 70

proofs from cut-the-knot)

Weisstein, Eric W. "Pythagorean theorem" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/PythagoreanTheorem.

html) . MathWorld.