- It can happen as cracks develop

Earth Science parallel to the land surface as a

Weathering - is a process where consequence of the reduction in
rocks, soil, and minerals are broken pressure during uplift and erosion.
down into pieces. - It occurs typically in upland areas
2 Types of Weathering where there are exposures of
1. Physical Weathering uniform coarsely crystalline
- is induced by the effects of igneous rocks.
changing temperatures on rocks,
which causes the rock to break
apart.
- Water is occasionally used to help
the process.
- It occurs most frequently in areas
with little soil and little vegetation,
such as mountain ranges and hot
deserts.
- It happens either by recurrent
melting and freezing of water
(mountains and tundra) or through
expansion and contraction of the  Frost Wedging / Freeze-thaw
sunbaked surface layer of rocks (hot
deserts). - Water freezes and expands in
 Abrasion Weathering cracks and fissures of rocks,
eventually causing them to fall apart.
- When rocks are physically worn - It occurs in mountainous regions
down by the movement of other like the Alps or Snowdonia.
materials against them, this form of
weathering happens.
- It occurs when rocks surface is
frequently exposed to water, wind
and gravity.

 Salt Crystallization
- When salt water evaporates, it
leaves behind salt crystals which
expand and contract owing to
temperature variations, causing
rocks to break apart.
  Exfoliation Weathering
- When rocks expand and compress
owing to temperature fluctuations,
they peel off in layers.
 Thermal Expansion
- When rocks expand and shrink
owing to temperature fluctuations,
they finally break apart.

 Carbonation
- When carbon dioxide combines
with particular minerals or rocks,
caves and sinkholes emerge.
- carbonic acid(weakly acidic) can
2. Chemical Weathering dissolve limestone as it seeps into
- is caused by rainwater reacting cracks and cavities.
with the mineral grains in rocks to
form new minerals(clay) and soluble
salts.
- These reactions occur particularly
when the water is slightly acidic.
- These chemical processes need
water, and occur more rapidly at
higher temperature, so warm, damp
climates are best.
- is the first stage in the production of
soils(especially hydrolysis and
oxidation).
 Hydrolysis
- When water reacts with certain
minerals or rocks, the mineral or  Oxidation
rocks breaks down by acidic water to - When oxygen combines with
produce clay and soluble salts. specific minerals or metals to
- It takes place when acid rain reacts generate rust, this sort of chemical
with rock-forming minerals such as weathering happens.
feldspar to produce clay and salts
that are removed in solution.
- Quartz is the only common rock-
forming mineral that is not affected.
- Quartz and clay are the two of the
most common minerals in
sedimentary rocks.
Uranium  This type of heat transfer occurs
 This natural radioactive element when heat is transferred from
is abundant in the Earth’s mantle one object to another through
and contributes significantly to direct contact.
the planet’s internal heat budget.

Iron Geologic Structures

 This type of metal is highly 1.Folds - when rocks experienced
susceptible to oxidation, compressive stress and deformed
resulting in the formation of rust. plastically.
Rockfall Types of Folds
 This type of mass wasting  Anticline - this type of folding
involves the sudden and process creates an upward
catastrophic collapse of a slope  Syncline - this type of folding
or cliff, often resulting in a large- process creates a downward fold
scale avalanche of rock and in rock layers.
debris.  Chevron - this type of folding
process results in a series of
Debris flow parallel folds in alternating
 Type of mass wasting involves directions.
the rapid movement of a mixture  Recumbent - this type of folding
of soil, rock, and water down a process forms a fold with a
steep slope, often triggered by horizontal axial plane.
heavy rainfall or snowmelt.  Ductile Folding - When rocks
deform in a ductile manner,
Creep instead of fracturing to form
 Type of mass wasting involves a faults or joints, they may bend
relatively slow movement of soil or fold, and the resulting
and rock down a slope, often structures are called folds.
compared to the movement of a 2.Faults - a rock under ample stress
flowing viscous fluid. can crack, or fracture(joint).
 Footwall - rock on top of the
Aluminum fault
 This metal is highly resistant to  Hanging wall - below the fault
oxidation and corrosion Types of Faults
 Normal faults - divergent
Granite boundaries where hanging wall
 This type of rock is particularly drops down.
vulnerable to hydrolysis due to  Reverse faults - convergent
its high content of feldspar boundaries where hanging wall
minerals. moves up.
Ex. Himalayas Mountains and
Metamorphism Rocky Mountains
 This phenomenon occurs when  Strike-Slip faults - wall move
rocks are subjected to high sideways(right or left lateral)
pressure and temperature,  Oblique faults - combination of
causing them to deform and shearing and tension of
release heat. compressional forces.

Conduction
Oceanic-Continental ✓Convergent : two plates move
Subduction(Seafloor Spreading) - toward each other.
when oceanic collides with
continental, oceanic subducts or ✓Divergent : two plates move away
goes down.
from each other.
Continental-Continental Collision
- two continental plates collide to
form mountains and trench. ✓Transform : two plates slide against
Oceanic-Oceanic Collision - each other.
formed island
Volcanism - consist of eruption  Extrusive rocks - formed on the
Pyroclastic material - cooldown of surface of the Earth from lava,
molten rocks or lava which is magma that has emerged
- forms when magma is blasted into from underground.
the air and hardens.  Intrusive rocks - formed from
Parasitic Volcano - having another magma that cools and solidifies
mouth of volcano.
Explosive Volcanism - this type of
volcanism occurs when molten rock
erupts explosively, producing ash,
gas, and pyroclastic material.
Effusive Volcanism - this type of
volcanism occurs when molten rock
flows smoothly and steadily from a
volcano.
Composite Volcanism -
combination of ashes.
within the crust of the planet.
Normal Earthquake - this type of
earthquake occurs when tectonic Stratified rocks are layered
plates move apart.
rocks formed due to the
Subduction Earthquake - this type
of earthquake occurs when one deposition of items such as
tectonic plate is forced beneath sand and silt near the
another place. riverbeds, forming layers on
Transform Earthquake - this type of
top of each other. Stratified
earthquake occurs when two
tectonic plates slide past each other rocks are made up of
horizontally. sandstone, siltstone, and shale
Reverse Earthquake - occurs when formed over a period in the
tectonic plates collide, causing process of stratification.
compression and the upward
displacement.

Explosive Volcanic Eruption - this

type of volcanism is a mixture of gas
and pyroclastic material erupts
violently, creating a turmulent
eruption column.
Relative Dating is the technique used to
determine the age by comparing the
historical remains to the nearby layers.
It is a less advanced technique when
compared to absolute dating.

Types of Relative Dating

1. Stratigraphy - This
technique assumes that 3. Cross dating - In this
the lowest layer is the method, the fossils of
oldest while the one layer are compared
topmost layer is the with another layer with
youngest layer. It is one known dating.
of the oldest methods
of relative dating.

Absolute Dating is a technique that

determines the exact numerical age of a
historical remaining. Since it evaluates
2. Biostratigraphy - In the exact age of the sample, absolute
this technique, the aging is also called numerical dating.
faunal deposits such as
Types of Absolute Dating
fossils of dead animals
are used to establish a 1. Radiometric Dating - It
strategy for dating. It is determines the age of the
an extended version of sample by measuring the
amount of a particular
stratigraphy.
radioactive isotope present in
the sample. The age can be
determined by the rate of decay
of that isotope. One of the most
popular and widely used types
of a radioactive isotope in this
type of technique is carbon- 14.
 4. Thermoluminescence - this
technique determines the
final period during which
the object absorbs light,
emitting electrons. The age
is determined for the
Black Shaded Hexagon - parent
isotopes

Grey Shaded Hexagon- daughter

isotopes

2. Amino acid dating - the

change in the protein
content of a biological
sample can be used to
determine the age. A
emissions.
particular form of living
being may have a Differences Between Absolute and
defined protein content Relative Dating
in their bodies that
deteriorates with time. Absolute Dating
- Determines exact age of ancient
3. Dendrochronology - the specimen.
- Quantitative measurement
number of annual growth
- High precision
rings of a dicot is used in
- Works well with igneous and
this technique to metamorphic rocks
determine the age of the - Expensive and takes time

Relative Dating
- Gives the order of age of several
samples.
- Qualitative measurement
- Low precision
- Works well with sedimentary
rocks (since its composed of
several layers of unconsolidated
fragments).
- Less expensive and is efficient.
tree.
Terms

Isotope - atoms that are of the same

element with the same number of
protons but different number of
neutrons.
ex . Carbon 14, Carbon 13, Carbon 12 or
Carbon 11

Radioactive Decay - the process of

breaking down isotopes. (Related to
Radiometric Dating).

Half-life - the time needed for one-half

of the parent atom to turn into
daughter atom.
Principle of Superposition - states that
layers of rock are superimposed, or laid
down on top of another. The oldest rock
will be on the bottom and the youngest
at the top. (Related to Stratigraphy).

Additional Info

● Potassium - 40 has a 1.3 billion-

year half-life and breaks down
into argon and calcium.
● Uranium-238 is a radioactive
isotope that decays to lead-206
● Uranium-238 has a half life of
4.5 billion years and can be used
for rocks older than 10 million
years for dating using uranium-
lead dating.