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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 17
Geomorphic Process (Part-02)
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Geomorphic Process
Exogenic Process:
 The geomorphic processes on the earth's crust or its surface brought down by the forces emanating from
above the earth's surface (wind, water) are called exogenic geomorphic processes.
 The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow but will, in the long run, affect
the rocks severely due to continued fatigue.
Forces Behind the Exogenic Process:
 Exogenic processes are a direct result of
the sun's heat.
 Sun's energy dictates the weather
patterns like winds, precipitation, etc.
 Sun's heat along with weather patterns
are responsible for stress induced in
earth materials giving rise to exogenic
movements (weathering and erosion).
 Earth materials become subjected to
molecular stresses caused due to
temperature changes.
 Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of bonds between grains.
 Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling (shear stresses separating forces) forces.
Denudation:
 Denudation is the collective term for the geological processes that wear down and lower the Earth's surface.
 It is a gradual process that occurs over long periods of time and is caused by a variety of factors, including:

Weathering:
 Weathering is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and minerals under the influence of physical (heat, pressure)
and chemical (leaching, oxidation and reduction, hydration) agents.
 As very little or no motion of materials takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or on-site process.
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Types of Weathering:

Physical Weathering:
 Physical weathering involves the mechanical disintegration
of rocks due to temperature changes, freeze-thaw cycles,
wet-dry cycles etc. In mechanical weathering, rocks break
down into smaller fragments.
Types of Physical Weathering:
1. Block Disintegration:
 A successive heating and cooling which causes the
expansion and contraction of rocks.
 In hot desert regions, day temperatures are very high while
nights are very cold.
 This high diurnal range of temperature causes successive
expansion and contraction of the rocks which tend to enlarge
the joints. As a result, the rocks disintegrate into smaller
blocks.
2. Exfoliation:
 This results because of the intense heating of the rock's outer layers. Since, rocks are poor conductors of
heat, the inner layers remain almost unaffected by heat.
 Due to successive expansion and contraction, the outer layers of the rock subsequently peel off from the
main mass of the rock in the form of a concentric shell.
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3. Unloading & Expansion:

 Intrusive igneous rocks formed deep beneath the Earth's surface are under tremendous pressure due to
overlying load.
 Removal of the overlying load because of continued erosion
causes vertical pressure release with the result that the upper
layers of the rock expand and fracture parallel to the surface.
4. Granular Disintegration:
 Granular disintegration happens in rocks composed of different
types of coarse-grained minerals.
 Dark-coloured minerals absorb more heat than the light-
coloured minerals.
 This leads to differential expansion and contraction of mineral
grains resulting in grain by grain separation from the rock.
5. Shattering:
 Severe frost can disintegrate rocks along weak/zones to produce
highly angular pieces with sharp corners and edges/ through the
process of shattering.
 Shattering piles up rock fragments called scree at the foot of
mountain areas or along slopes.
Chemical Weathering:
 Chemical weathering involves the chemical decomposition of rocks
and soil.
 Chemical weathering processes include dissolution, solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation and reduction
which act on the rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine state.
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Types of Chemical Weathering:

1. Oxidation:
 The process in which atmospheric oxygen
reacts with the rock to produce oxides.
The greatest impact of this process is
observed on ferrous minerals.
 Oxygen present in humid air reacts with
iron grains in the rock to form a yellow or
red oxide of iron. This is called rusting of
the iron. Rust decomposes rocks
completely with the passage of time.
2. Natural Dissolution:
 A process where a solute in a gaseous, liquid, or solid phase
dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
 Some minerals, due to their natural solubility (like nitrates,
sulphates, and potassium), oxidation potential (iron-rich minerals)
will weather through dissolution naturally (rains).
 These minerals are easily leached out without leaving any
residue and accumulate in dry regions.
3. Hydration:
 The process by which water is absorbed by the minerals of the
rocks. Due to the absorption of water by the rock, its volume
increases and the grains lose their shape.
 Feldspar, for example, is changed into kaolin through hydration.
4. Carbonation:
 Carbonation refers to the reactions of carbon dioxide to
give carbonates, bicarbonates, and carbonic acid.
 As rain falls/it dissolves small amounts of carbon dioxide
from the air, forming a weak acid that can dissolve some
minerals like limestone (calcium carbonate)
 Caves are formed when underground water containing
carbonic acid travels through blocks of limestone,
dissolves out the limestone, and leaves empty pockets
(caves) behind (E.g. Karst topography).
Biological Weathering:
 Biological weathering is the removal of minerals from the environment due to the growth or movement of
organisms.
 Living organisms contribute to both mechanical and chemical weathering.
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 Lichens and mosses grow on essentially bare rock surfaces and create a more humid chemical
microenvironment.
 Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, rodents etc., help in exposing the new surfaces to
chemical attack and assist in the penetration of moisture and air.
 Decaying plant and animal matter helps in the production of humic, carbonic and other acids which enhance
decay and solubility of some elements.
 Algae utilise mineral nutrients for growth and help in the concentration of iron and manganese oxides.
Biotic Weathering:
 Plants contribute to both mechanical and chemical weathering. The
roots of the plants penetrate into the joints of the rocks.
 They grow longer and thicker. In this manner, they exert
pressure on rocks and the rock joints are thereby enlarged and
break into smaller fragments.
 Burrowing animals like earthworms, rats, rabbits, termites and ants
breakdown the rocks.
 These disintegrated rocks can easily be eroded or removed by wind etc. Hooves of animals break the
soil and thus assist soil erosion.
 The role of earthworms and termites is of special significance. According to scientists, there is a
possibility of occurrence about 150,000 earthworms in an acre and they can convert 10 to 15 tons of
rock mass into good soil and bring it to the surface.

 Human beings play a very important role in weathering of various rocks.

 Man breaks a large amount of rocks in the course of his activities, like agriculture, construction of
houses, construction of roads, among others.
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 He quarries for mining minerals, thus helps in weathering

by breaking, weakening and loosening the rocks.
Significance of Weathering:
 Weathering is the first step in the formation of soil from rocks.
 Weathering weakens soil and rocks and makes it easy to
exploit natural resources.
 Weathering leads to natural soil enrichment.
 Weathering leads to mineral enrichment of certain ores by leaching unwanted minerals leaving behind the
valuable ones.
Mass Movement:
 The rocks debris is transferred down the slopes due to
gravity.
 The mass movements also called slope movement or mass
wasting are both slow and fast and it influences the
shallow to deep columns of material and works creep, flows,
slide and fall. The gravitational attraction applies its force
to the bedrock and also the products of weathering.
 The Weathering is not a basic requirement for Mass
Movement but it greatly helps it. The un-weathered
material is inactive for slope movements whereas
weathered material is active for slope movement.
Soil Creep:
 Creep is a type of slow movement that occurs on
moderately steep and soil-covered slopes. This
movement is extremely slow and gradual, and only can
be observed if viewed for a very long time.
 Creep involves soil or rock debris. Due to this
movement, the telephone lines lean downslope from
their linear alignment, fence post lean, etc.
Mud Flow:
 In the inadequacy of vegetation cover and by massive
rainfall, thick layers of weathered matter get soaked
with water and both slowly or rapidly flow down by
certain channels.
 It seems like a river of mud in a valley. If the
mudflows arise out of channels over the area at the
base of a mountain or mountain range such as
piedmont or plains, it can become very dangerous by engulfing or covering the roads, bridges, and houses.
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Landslides:
 Landslides are nearly rapid movements and the material involved is
relatively dry.
 Rain water just acts as a lubricating agent.
Causes of Landslides:
 Tectonic Activity: Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can cause
ground shaking and tremors that destabilize slopes and trigger
landslides.
 Heavy Rainfall: Intense rainfall can saturate the soil and rocks,
increasing their weight and reducing their cohesion, making them
more prone to sliding down slopes.
 Slope Steepness: Steep slopes are more susceptible to landslides due to the increased force of gravity acting
on the soil and rocks.
 Sea Waves and Tsunamis: Powerful waves can erode coastal areas and undercut slopes, destabilizing them
and causing landslides.
 Youthful Rivers: Rivers that are actively cutting down into their valleys create steep slopes that are more
prone to landslides.
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