EARSCI080 (GEOLOGIC PROCESSES ON EARTHS SURFACE)

1.1 WEATHERING

TYPES OF ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS - from solidification of magma or lava which flows
out from depth.
- characterized by intergrowth of crystals and/or
volcanic glass
- mostly identified by their glassy or crystalline
appearance.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - from compaction and cementation of sediments,
a process called lithification.
- sediments are products of weathering which
are transported from one place to another by
wind, running water, sea, or glaciers.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS - rocks that have been altered or transformed in
the solid due to changes in pressure, temperature
conditions, and chemical actions of hot fluids.
---
METAMORPHISM - the change in form in mineral assemblage and
texture.
ROCK CYCYLE - never-ending transformation of one rock to
another.
---
WEATHERING - process of breaking down of rocks into smaller
pieces called sediments. Rocks exposed at
Earth’s
surface undergo weathering, and this process
usually takes a long time.
LIMESTONE BEING DISSOLVE - which most caves form
LIMESTONE - is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

TYPES OF WEATHERING
MECHANICAL WEATHERING - process wherein rocks are broken down into
smaller pieces without changing their chemical
composition due to several factors like
fluctuating temperatures and pressure, and
biological activity.

PROCESS INVOLVED IN MECHANICAL

WEATHERING
- frost wedging
- heating and cooling
- salt crystal growth
- biological activity
- unloading

FROST WEDGING
- repeated cycles of freezing and thawing of ice.
- expansion of water as it freezes.
- these happens under the three conditions:
1) when there is sufficient moisture;
2) when there are pre-existing cracks or
pore spaces and fractures by which water
can penetrate;
3) when temperature frequently rise and fall
past above or below the freezing point.

HEATING AND COOLING

- the constant cycle of expansion (due to
heating)
 - contraction (due to cooling)
- causes rocks to fracture and break down into
smaller pieces.
- rocks are composed of different minerals which
expand or contract when subjected to sudden
changes in temperature.

SALT CRYSTAL GROWTH

- process happens when seawater penetrates
crevices in rocks which are found mostly in rocky
shorelines and arid regions.
- left in pore spaces of the rocks when seawater
evaporates.
- continue to grow larger as more saline water
enters and evaporates.
- also expand when subjected to an increase in
temperature that causes the widening of cracks
and eventually breaking rocks.

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
- action of organism including plants and animals
which make rocks more susceptible to chemical
weathering.
- plants roots wedging a rock

UNLOADING
- through erosion or uplift, thick layers of
sediments overlying deeply buried in rocks are
removed.
- when rocks are exposed due to unloading, the
stress caused by the overlying material is lowered
causing it to expand.
- creating exfoliation domes (onion-like layers)
- the same process happens in mines and tunnels
where rocks suddenly burts due to released
confining pressure during tunneling operations.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING - process wherein rock materials are changed
into other substances that have different
physical and chemical compositions.
- some agents of chemical weathering
include water, strong acids, and oxygen.

PROCESS INVOLVED IN CHEMICAL

WEATHERING
- dissolution
- hydrolysis
- oxidation

DISSOLUTION
- process wherein a solid (halite) dissolves in a
liquid (water).
- happens because water is one of the most
effective solvents due to its molecular structure.
- common type of chemical weathering and
significantly contributes to areas such as karst
topography and sinkholes.
 KARST TOPOGRAPHY - landscape formed
by the dissolution of carbonate rocks such as
limestone and dolomite. The presence of
caves and sinkholes usually characterized by
this landscape.
 SINKHOLES - produced by several
processes, most commonly when a cave
 grows large and close enough to the surface
and later on collapses.

HYDROLYSIS
- process wherein water reacts with a mineral to
form a new mineral
- this process happens when water is incorporated
into the original mineral’s crystal structure.
- water interacts with the original mineral and
splits it weak bonds.
- it creates softer and soluble material than the
original.

OXIDATION
- chemical combination of oxygen with a mineral
to form an entirely different mineral in which at
least one of the elements has a higher ionic
charge.
- iron is the essential element in chemical
weathering, abundant in mafic, and ultramafic
minerals.
- also gives the red color for desert landscapes.

FACTORS OF WEATHERING OF ROCKS

CLIMATE - includes the amount of moisture in the air and
temperature where weathering takes place.
- weathering occurs faster when it is hot
- wet climates while slower in very cold, dry areas.
SURFACE AREA AND TOPOGRAPHIC RELIEF - weathering rapidly occurs when there is a large
surface area exposed to surface processes.
- when a block is broken into smaller pieces, it has
a large total surface area which makes it more
susceptible to weathering.
- the topography of the area also affects the rate
of weathering by influencing the amount of rock
exposed to weathering.
- the higher the elevation of an area, the more
susceptible it is to weathering since it is more
exposed to the wind, sudden change in
temperature, and other environmental factors like
gravity.
ROCK COMPOSITION - includes all the chemical traits of rock such as
mineral composition and solubility.
- variation in the rates of weathering happens due
to the resistance of some minerals to
disintegration.

 GOLDICH STABILITY - series illustrates

the relative stability or weathering rate of
numerous minerals. Inverse order of original
crystallization for minerals found in the
Bowen’s reaction series.
> olivine is the first to crystallize and least
stable.
> quartz is the last to crystallize and more
resistant to weathering due to its stability.

1.2 EROSION
--
EROSION - the movement of sediments and particles
through the help of transporting media such as
glacial ice, water, and wind.
- transportation of weathered rocks.
 - constant recycling of Earth’s materials under the
rock cycle.
- natural process
EROSIONAL FORCES/AGENTS - such as running water or rivers, wind, gravity,
groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers.
MEANDER - sharp horseshoe-like curve in a stream or a river.
- formed when force coming from flowing water
carriers off sediments that have been weathered
away and deposits them on one side of the
riverbank.

TYPES OF EROSION
WATER EROSION - a type of erosion where water carriers the
sediments to different bodies of water such as
rivers.
- the high amount of rainfall contributes to
susceptibility of the soil to water erosion.

SUBTYPES OF WATER EROSION

- splash erosion
- rill erosion
- gully erosion
- bank erosion
- thermal erosion

SPLASH EROSION
- mainly caused by rainfall in which a single
raindrop can create a small crater dispersing the
soil particles.

RILL EROSION
- causes the improvement of flow paths for the
rainwater.

GULLY EROSION
- describes the erosion caused directly by
rainwater runoff or melting snow.
- most severe due to the accumulation and rapid
flow of water.

BANK EROSION
- happens when banks of streams or rivers wear
away.

THERMAL EROSION
- caused by melting of permafrost due to running
water.
GLACIAL EROSION - when a glacier, or a river of highly-compact ice,
move downhill due to its weight.
- plucks chunks of rocks and causes scraping
between the ice and the rock.
- plucking and scraping can lead to the
development of other landforms
- it can carve valleys, deposit large amounts
off sediments, and create spectacular
landforms in a relatively short amount of
time.
WIND EROSION - happens when light materials, such as small
rocks and pebbles, are carried by the wind to
different places.
- occur most when the amount of rainfall is low,
and soil moisture is at its lowest value.
- haze of dust in carrying fine materials from the
 soil. (only proof)

CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION

SOIL ERODIBILITY - the vulnerability of soil to erosion caused by
rainfall intensity, soil properties, crop cover, and
slope.
- high erodibility means that a certain amount
of erosion results in more massive depletion of
material.
SOIL TEXTURE - texture of the soil is the most important factor to
erodibility although structure, organic matter, and
permeability may also affect it.

- soil with faster infiltration rates, higher

amount of organic matter, and improved
structures are less prone to erosion.

- loam and fine sand are most erodible soils

- coarser materials are composed of heavier

components which can only be transported by a
higher fluid speed.
OVERGRAZING - livestock or by indigenous animals may remove
vegetation leaving the soil more vulnerable to
erosion.
- occurs when livestock or wildfire excessively
feeds on pasture without giving the plants time to
regrow.
- also removes the nutrients from the topsoil
which is the most nutrient-filled part of the soil.
VEGETATION REMOVAL - cutting of trees and removal of vegetation
to provide lumber can also result in large amounts
of erosion.
- the loss of topsoil can hinder farming in the long
run due to the depletion of nutrients from the soil.
USE OF PESTICIDES - use of pesticides, herbicides, and fuel oils also
pollutes the soil
- salt can contaminate soil due to high salinity and
other industries could harm the soil.

MEASURES TO PREVENT SOIL EROSION

TERRACING - steep terrains are shaped to produce flat areas
suitable for farming
- helps capture and retain rainfall, thus minimizing
runoff and promoting soil formation
- ex. Batad rice terraces in Banaue.
REDUCING FARMLAND CONVERSION - done to prevent transformation of agricultural
lands into areas for commercial buildings,
highways, and airports.
PLANTING VEGETATION - most effective ways of preventing soil erosion.
- plants have extensive root system which holds
the soil in place and thus reducing erodibility.
APPLICATION OF ORGANIC FERTILIZER - like mulch (composed of decaying leaves, bark,
or compost)
- enables pH level of soil to beestored and causes
the soil to slowly soak water which prevents soil
erosion during heavy rainfall.
BUILDING RETAINING WALLS - around the area to prevent water runoff is
another way of lessening soil erosion.

1.3 MASS WASTING

MASS WASTING - a down slope movement of rock,
regolith/unconsolidated material, and soil under
the influence of gravity.
- natural accourance and a result of several
situations independent of human activities.
- one of the steps required to transport debris
downslope after weathering.

FACTORS THAT CAUSE WEAKENING OF SLOPES

OVERSTEEPENED SLOPES - when a stream undercuts a valley wall or when
waves started to pound on the base of a cliff,
oversteepened slopes are created.

- angle of repose which is the steepest angle at

which a pile of unconsolidated, coarser particles
remain stable and controlled by the frictional force
and minor electric charge attraction between
grains.
- the higher the angle of repose the more likely
mass wasting will occur since friction will not be
able to counter gravitational force.
AMOUNT OF WATER - the angle of repose for dry materials increases
with the size of the grains, but it usually lies
between 30 degrees and 37 degrees.