EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REVIEWER depth.

In the upper

EARTH’S INTERNAL

THE CRUST
 The crust is a very thin layer
that measures between 0 and
60 km.
 The outermost layer of the Earth.
 The thick continental crust, about
32 km, makes up the land surface
of the Earth and is composed
primarily of less dense materials
such as granite; SiAl
 The thin oceanic crust has a depth of
5–10 km and is made up of basalt
which is denser than granite; SiMa

THE MANTLE
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity
- the boundary that
separates the Earth’s crust
and the upper mantle.
 The thickest layer of the Earth,
spanning almost 2900 km and
making up 84% of the Earth’s
volume.
 It contains magma. It is primarily
solid but behaves as a viscous
liquid.
 Geothermal gradient, the
increase in temperature with
 mantle, the temperatures
range from 600 to 900 °C. In
the lower mantle, the
temperature can reach over
4000 °C.

CONVECTION CURRENTS

 Convection currents
carry heat from the hot
inner mantle to the cooler
outer mantle
 If the upper part of the
mantle cools down, it
becomes part of the
crust
 Also, this process is
responsible for
earthquakes and other
geological processes

THE CORE
 Gutenberg Discontinuity
 - The boundary between the
Earth’s lower mantle and the
outer core.
 The core is at the center of the
Earth. In this region, the
temperature is
hotter than the mantle. It is divided
into two parts: the outer core and
the
inner core.
 The liquid outer core is 2300 km
thick. It is composed primarily of
iron and nickel. Temperature is
around 4000–5700 °C. High
temperature causes the outer core
to undergo convection and rotates
faster than the planet: Dynamo

effect.

 The inner core is a solid ball with a

radius of 1220 km. Like the outer
core, the inner core is made up of
iron and nickel, but in solid form.
The temperature is quite high at
around 7000 °C.

 Lehmann Discontinuity
- the boundary between
the outer and inner core

EXOGENIC PROCESS
  a continuum of processes –
Weathering-Mass Wasting- TYPES OF WEATHERING:
Erosion- Transportation-Deposition  Physical or Mechanical Weathering
 these processes are carried - is the breaking up of rocks
through by Geomorphic Agents: without changing the rock’s
gravity, flowing water (rivers), mineral composition.
moving ice (glaciers), waves and - No change in chemical
tides (oceans and lakes), wind, composition of rocks
plants, organisms, animals and
- Disintegration and decay of
humans
rocks via weather elements:
high temperatures, extreme
1. Degradation Processes-Also
cold and freeze-thaw cycles.
called Denudation Processes
a. Weathering
 FROST WEDGING
b. Mass Wasting
- Water that enters through the
c. Erosion and Transportation
cracks and empty spaces of
rocks expands when it freezes.
2. Aggradation Processes
 INSOLATION/ THERMAL STRESS
a. Deposition – fluvial, eolian, glacial, coastal
- Resulted from continuous
expansion and contraction of
rocks caused by temperature
change.
 ABRASION
- Wearing away of rocks by
constant collision of loose
particles.
 UNLOADING/PRESSURE RELEASE
- Rocks brought to surface
erode away releasing
confining pressure, and allows
the rock to expand, thus
exfoliating.
 External processes that occur at or
 SALT CRYSTALLIZATION/
near the surface of the Earth.
HALOCLASTY
 Exogenic processes are part of the
- Force exerted by salt crystals
rock cycle.
that formed as water
 They are responsible for
evaporates from pore spaces
transforming rocks into sediments.
or cracks in rocks.
WEATHERING
 Chemical Weathering
 Physical and chemical
- Chemical weathering or
disintegration and degradation
decomposition, decomposes
of rocks.
rocks through chemical change
 In situ, no transportation involved
in its minerals.
 Involves the mechanical or
- Often transforming them
physical disintegration and/or
when water interacts with
chemical decomposition that
minerals to create various
fragments rock masses into
chemical reactions.
smaller components that amass
- When rocks are chemically
on-site, before being moved by
changed, it can make them
gravity or transported by other
look different.
agents
 The processes begin in
 OXIDATION
microscopic spaces, cracks,
- Oxygen dissolved in water
joints, faults, fractures, lava
will oxidize some
vesicles and other rock cavities
materials.
 Reddish-brown rust will move rock fragments to the
appear on the surface of surface, exposing the rock to more
iron-rich minerals, which
easily crumbles and
weakens the rocks,
corrosion.
- This process is known as
rusting.
- Many other metals oxidized
and hydrate to produce
colored deposits, such as
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
forming copper oxide or
iron oxide.
 HYDROLYSIS
- Mineral hydration, is a form
of chemical weathering that
involves the attachment of
H+ and OH- to the atoms and
molecules of minerals.
- It affects silicates and
carbonate minerals.
- The rock surface
decomposes by increasing
the pH of solution through
the release of hydroxide
ions.
 CARBONATION
- Rainfall is acidic because
atmospheric carbon dioxide
dissolves in water producing weak
carbonic acid.
- Carbon dioxide dissolved in water
reacts with carbonate rocks to
create a soluble product (calcium
bicarbonate).
- Carbonation occurs in rocks that
contains CaCO3, such as limestone
and chalk.
- The process speeds up with
decrease in temperature; colder
water holds more dissolved carbon
dioxide gas.

 Biological Weathering
- Plants and animals as
agents of weathering.
- Roots physically break or
wedge rock
- Lichens (algae and fungi
living as single unit),
remove minerals and
weaken rock by releasing
acids
- Burrowing animals can
 intense chemical, - Excessive erosion causes
physical, and problems such as
biological processes desertification, land
and so indirectly degradation, and
enhancing the sedimentation of
process of rock waterways.
weathering.
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT  AGENTS OF EROSION
THE RATE OF
WEATHERING WATER
 SPLASH EROSION
- CLIMATE- areas - Raindrops cause tiny
that are cold or particles of soil to be
dry tend to have detached and move out.
low rates of  SHEET EROSION
chemical - Uniform removal of soil in
weathering, thin layers by the forces of
mostly physical. raindrops and overland flow.
- ROCK TYPE-
minerals that
constitute the
rocks has different
susceptibility to
weathering.
- ROCK
STRUCTURE-
presence of joints,
folds, faults,
cleavage
disintegrate faster.
- TOPOGRAPHY-
weathering
happens in steep
slope that on a
gentle ones.
- TIME- length
of exposure,
determines
the degree of
weathering.

EROSION AND DEPOSITION

 EROSION
- The incorporation
and transportation
of materials by a
mobile agent such
as water, wind, or
ice.
- Natural process
- Humans
activities have
increased by
10-40 times the
rate of erosion
globally.
  GULLY EROSION - If the arch collapses, the
- The removal of soil along seaward part is still there
drainage lines by surface and is a stack
water runoff.
- Sea stacks are erosional
 VALLEY EROSION remnants; with a cave
- Continuous water flow cutting through, it's a sea
alongside land and move arch.
downward, which deepens
a valley.
 BANK EROSION
- The wearing away of the
banks of a stream or river.
This is distinguished from
erosion of the bed of the
watercourse
WAVES

GLACIER
- Glacier is a moving body of ice on
land that moves downslope or
outward from an area of
accumulation (Monroe et al.,
2007).
- Abrasion- debris in the basal ice
scrapes along the beds. It yields
- Waves are classified based on glacial polish and glacial
generation force: wind- striations.
generated waves, tsunami, - Plucking- fractured bedrocks
tides, storm surges, and are incorporated into the ice.
seiches. - Effects of glacial erosion varies
- Coastal erosion depending on: rate of movement,
-Hydraulic action, when air in a joint, thickness of the ice, and
suddenly compressed by a wave. Nerodibility of the surface.
-Wave pounding, sheer energy of
the wave hitting the cliff or rock.
-Abrasion, scraping, mostly
effective and rapid way of
shoreline erosion.
-Corrosion, dissolving of rock
through carbonic acid.

 SEA WAVES WIND

- Sea caves result where - Wind forms by differences in
an easily eroded piece of pressure due to differential
rock is removed heating of the atmosphere.
 SEA ARCH - Wind carries dust, sand, and
- A sea arch happens when a volcanic ash from one point to
sea cave or two goes all the another.
way through. - Wind erodes by:
-Deflation, removal of loose, fine
 SEA STACKS particles at the surface.
-Abrasion, grinding action and
sandblasting.
 colliding

GRAVITY
- Mass wasting, the downslope
movements of soil, rock, and
regolith under the direct
influence of gravity (Tarbuck et
al., 2014).
- Mass wasting moves materials
from higher to lower
elevations.

MASS WASTING
- The downslope movement of rock,
regolith, and soil under a direct
influence of gravity.
- slope movement or mass
movement TYPES OF MASS WASTING
 FALLS
- Involve a single rock or
thousands of rocks.
-Travel at a high rate of speed
down a very steep slope
-If the slope is vertical or
overhung, rock(s) will drop straight
downward, fragmenting when they
hit the base of the slope.
-Over time, this forms a body of
angular rubble called talus, a
distinctive transition from the
steep slope to flatter ground.
-Rock fall
- Simplest and
most obvious form
of mass wasting.
- Materials fall freely in the
air.
-Occurs only in a very
steep cliff.
-Talus, resulting mound of
debris at the bottom of the
fall.
- Rock Avalanche
- Type of fall usually forms
when a massive rock fall
explodes apart on contact
with a slope.
-As this occurs, thousands of
rocks continue their flying
trajectories down slope,
 with each other and the internal movements of individual
slope itself. grains (tiny like silt or
-Transitional mass
wasting event, changing
from a pure rock fall to
something more like a
rapid flow of material as
the material moves
further from the base of a
slope.
 SLIDES
-slides have in common is that
the mass of sediment/rock sticks
together as a coherent block as it
travels down slope along a tilted
plane or surface of weakness.
-Ultimately, as the moving slide
mass comes to a sudden stop, it
may break apart and continue
down slope as a type of flow.
- Rock Slide
-Due to pre-existing plane
or weakness within a
slope. Such planes of
weakness are either flat
sedimentary surfaces,
planes of cleavage, or a
fracture within a body of
rock.
- Slumps
-Force exerted by salt
crystals that formed as
water evaporates from
pore spaces or cracks in
rocks.

 FLOW
- Of the three basic types of
mass wasting, flows are the
most complex, both in terms of
how they originate and how
they move.
-Unlike slides, in which the
material sticks together as a
coherent mass as it moves down
slope, flows are characterized by
 sand up to large boulders and small  GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
blocks of crust) within the flow - It is the rate of increasing
itself. temperature with respect
-The internal flow movements of to increasing depth in
individual grains can be fast and Earth's interior.
chaotic if the flow originates from a - This gradient is due to
steep slope, or if it contains a lot of outward heat flow from a
water. hot interior.
- Or, grain movements can be very - The depth has a directly
slow and somewhat predictable if proportional relationship
the slope surface is very gradual in to the temperature.
its angle. - Primary cause of
"convection current"
- Rock Avalanche  CONVECTION CURRENT
-As the avalanching rocks - Convection carries heat to
begin to slow and lose the surface of the mantle
energy, the internal much faster than heating by
behavior of the mass "conduction".
becomes more like a fluid. - A convecting mantle is an
Mass will slow down, and essential feature of plate
cease. tectonics, because the
- Debris Flow higher rate of heat
-Debris flows usually contain transfer is necessary to
a high water content which keep the
enables them to travel at asthenosphere weak.
fairly high velocity for some
distance from where they
originated.
-Creep
-Slopes creep due to the
ORIGIN OF EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT
expansion and contraction
 ACCRETIONARY HISTORY
of surface sediment, and
- A lot of Earth’s heat is
the pull of gravity.
leftover from when our
planet formed
ENDOGENIC PROCESS due to catastrophic
- Unlike exogenic processes accretionary collision; the
(destructive), Endogenic Processes bombardment of
are seen to be "building" & planetesimals heated Earth
"transforming" process, leading to to a molten state.
the formation of lithospheric  GRAVITATIONAL
plates, mountains, volcanoes, and - The gravitational pull off
new layers of rocks. the planet towards its
center is not only vital to
keep the materials
compacted, compressed
but also helps in adding
pressure to the molten
substances.
 FRICTION
- Earth's Interior is on the
constant move due to
convection current;
creating heat as product
of collision is inevitable.
 RADIOACTIVITY
- Radioactivity contributes
44% to the Earth's heat.
Unstable or radioactive
like Uranium (U-235 &2 U-
238), Potassium- 40 and
Thorium-232
  ISOSTASY or hot water and steam,
- The balance between including volcanoes,
gravity and buoyancy on the geysers, and fumaroles.
Earth's lithosphere, as it
floats on the WHY VOLCANOES ERUPT?
asthenosphere. - The explosivity of an eruption
- Changes in the depends on the composition of the
lithosphere's weight can magma.
cause it to rise or sink. - A thin and runny magma, let
o As mountains are gases escape easily, magma
eroded, the area may flows out of the volcano.
rise (uplift) - If magma is thick and sticky,
o As sediments are gases cannot escape easily.
deposited at the mouth Pressure builds up until the gases
of a river, the area may escape violently and explode.
sink (subsidence)
- This causes the crust to  PLUTONISM
bend, and rock to deform. - is the process by which
 MAGMATISM magma rises through the
- The formation and crust and crystallizes as an
movement of magma under intrusive igneous rock
the Earth's surface. beneath the Earth's
- It is a direct reflection of surface. Pluton is a generic
a planet's internal word for any igneous
thermal state and its intrusive rock body.
chemical and physical
constitution. PLUTONIC FORMATIONS
- Magmatism is closely linked Vertical plutonic intrusions are called "dikes";
to tectonism, which itself is Horizontal intrusions are called "sills"
directly linked to the larger-
scale process of thermal
convection within the
mantle and core.
MAGMA
- Is a hot semi-solid molten
material, that can push through
holes or cracks in the crust,
causing a volcanic eruption.

MAGMA IS FORMED: associated with the surficial

- Magma can be characterized discharge of molten rock
based on its mineral composition: (magma), pyroclastic fragments,
basaltic, andesitic, or rhyolitic.
- Hot rocks begin to melt deep
down beneath the surface,
different minerals has different
melting point.
- Magma formation is usually found
in:
o Subduction zones
o Volcanoes
o Mid-ocean ridges

 VOLCANISM
- Volcanism is any of various
processes and phenomena
 METAMORPHISM
- Mineralogical and
structural adjustments
of solid rocks to
physical and chemical
conditions differing
from those under
which the rocks
originally formed
(protolith). Changes
produced by surface
conditions such as
compaction are
usually excluded. The
most important
agents of
metamorphism include
temperature, pressure,
and fluids.
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
 CONTACT METAMORPHISM
- Temperature-dominated
transformation, cause
by magma intrusions
Ex. Hornfels, Quartzite, Marble
 PRESSURE METAMORPHISM
- Occurs when sediments
are buried deep under the
ground; pressure is
dominant and temperature
plays a smaller role.
 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
- Both heat and pressure play
a role. This is typically
found in mountain-building
regions.