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Wireless sensor network

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Wireless sensor network (WSN) refers to a

group of spatially dispersed and dedicated
sensors for monitoring and recording the physical
conditions of the environment and organizing the
collected data at a central location. WSNs
measure environmental conditions like
temperature, sound, pollution levels, humidity,
wind, and so on.[1]
These are similar to wireless ad hoc networks in
the sense that they rely on wireless connectivity
and spontaneous formation of networks so that
sensor data can be transported wirelessly. WSNs
are spatially
distributed autonomous sensors to monitor physi
cal or environmental conditions, such
as temperature, sound, pressure, etc. and to
cooperatively pass their data through the
network to a main location. The more modern
networks are bi-directional, both collecting
data from distributed sensors[2] and
enabling control of sensor activity.[3] The
development of wireless sensor networks was
motivated by military applications such as
battlefield surveillance;[4] today such networks
are used in many industrial and consumer
applications, such as industrial process
monitoring and control, machine health
monitoring, and so on.
The WSN is built of "nodes" – from a few to
several hundreds or even thousands, where each
 node is connected to one (or sometimes several)
sensors. Each such sensor network node has
typically several parts: a radio transceiver with
an internal antenna or connection to an external
antenna, a microcontroller, an electronic circuit
for interfacing with the sensors and an energy
source, usually a battery or an embedded form
of energy harvesting. A sensor node might vary
in size from that of a shoebox down to the size of
a grain of dust, although functioning "motes" of
genuine microscopic dimensions have yet to be
created. The cost of sensor nodes is similarly
variable, ranging from a few to hundreds of
dollars, depending on the complexity of the
individual sensor nodes. Size and cost constraints
on sensor nodes result in corresponding
constraints on resources such as energy,
memory, computational speed and
communications bandwidth. The topology of the
WSNs can vary from a simple star network to an
advanced multi-hop wireless mesh network. The
propagation technique between the hops of the
network can be routing or flooding.[5][6]
In computer science and telecommunications,
wireless sensor networks are an active research
area with numerous workshops and conferences
arranged each year, for
example IPSN, SenSys, MobiCom and EWSN. As
of 2010, wireless sensor networks have reached
approximately 120 million remote units
worldwide.[7]

Contents
 1Application
 1.1Area monitoring
 1.2Health care monitoring
 1.3Environmental/Earth sensing
 1.3.1Air pollution monitoring
 1.3.2Forest fire detection
 1.3.3Landslide detection
 1.3.4Water quality monitoring
 1.3.5Natural disaster prevention
 1.4Industrial monitoring
 1.4.1Machine health monitoring
 1.4.2Data logging
 1.4.3Water/waste water monitoring
 1.4.4Structural health monitoring
 1.4.5Wine production
 1.5Threat detection
 2Characteristics
 3Platforms
 3.1Hardware
 3.2Wireless
 3.3Software
 3.3.1Routing protocols
 3.3.2Operating systems
 3.4Online collaborative sensor data management
platforms
 4Simulation
 5Other concepts
 5.1Security
 5.2Distributed sensor network
 5.3Data integration and sensor web
 5.4In-network processing
 5.5Secure data aggregation
 6See also
 7References
 8Further reading
 9External links

Application[edit]
Area monitoring[edit]
Area monitoring is a common application of
WSNs. In area monitoring, the WSN is deployed
over a region where some phenomenon is to be
monitored. A military example is the use of
sensors to detect enemy intrusion; a civilian
example is the geo-fencing of gas or oil pipelines.
Health care monitoring[edit]
There are several types of sensor networks for
medical applications: implanted, wearable, and
environment-embedded. Implantable medical
devices are those that are inserted inside the
human body. Wearable devices are used on the
body surface of a human or just at close
proximity of the user. Environment-embedded
systems employ sensors contained in the
environment. Possible applications include body
position measurement, location of persons,
overall monitoring of ill patients in hospitals and
at home. Devices embedded in the environment
track the physical state of a person for
continuous health diagnosis, using as input the
data from a network of depth cameras, a sensing
floor, or other similar devices. Body-area
networks can collect information about an
individual's health, fitness, and energy
expenditure.[8][9] In health care applications the
privacy and authenticity of user data has prime
importance. Especially due to the integration of
sensor networks, with IoT, the user
authentication becomes more challenging;
however, a solution is presented in recent work.
[10]

Environmental/Earth sensing[edit]
There are many applications in monitoring
environmental parameters,[11] examples of which
are given below. They share the extra challenges
of harsh environments and reduced power
supply.
Air pollution monitoring[edit]
Wireless sensor networks have been deployed in
several cities (Stockholm, London, and Brisbane)
to monitor the concentration of dangerous gases
for citizens. These can take advantage of the ad
hoc wireless links rather than wired installations,
which also make them more mobile for testing
readings in different areas.[citation needed]
Forest fire detection[edit]
A network of Sensor Nodes can be installed in a
forest to detect when a fire has started. The
nodes can be equipped with sensors to measure
temperature, humidity and gases which are
produced by fire in the trees or vegetation. The
early detection is crucial for a successful action
of the firefighters; thanks to Wireless Sensor
Networks, the fire brigade will be able to know
when a fire is started and how it is spreading.
Landslide detection[edit]
A landslide detection system makes use of a
wireless sensor network to detect the slight
movements of soil and changes in various
parameters that may occur before or during a
landslide. Through the data gathered it may be
possible to know the impending occurrence of
landslides long before it actually happens.
Water quality monitoring[edit]
Water quality monitoring involves analyzing
water properties in dams, rivers, lakes and
oceans, as well as underground water reserves.
The use of many wireless distributed sensors
enables the creation of a more accurate map of
the water status, and allows the permanent
deployment of monitoring stations in locations of
difficult access, without the need of manual data
retrieval.[12]
Natural disaster prevention[edit]
Wireless sensor networks can be effective in
preventing adverse consequences of natural
disasters, like floods. Wireless nodes have been
deployed successfully in rivers, where changes in
water levels must be monitored in real time.
Industrial monitoring[edit]
Machine health monitoring[edit]
Wireless sensor networks have been developed
for machinery condition-based maintenance
(CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and
enable new functionality.[13]
Wireless sensors can be placed in locations
difficult or impossible to reach with a wired
system, such as rotating machinery and
untethered vehicles.
Data logging[edit]
Main article: Data logging
Wireless sensor networks also are used for the
collection of data for monitoring of
environmental information.[14] This can be as
simple as monitoring the temperature in a fridge
or the level of water in overflow tanks in nuclear
power plants. The statistical information can then
be used to show how systems have been
working. The advantage of WSNs over
conventional loggers is the "live" data feed that
is possible.
Water/waste water monitoring[edit]
Monitoring the quality and level of water includes
many activities such as checking the quality of
underground or surface water and ensuring a
country’s water infrastructure for the benefit of
both human and animal. It may be used to
protect the wastage of water.
Structural health monitoring[edit]
Main article: Structural health monitoring
Wireless sensor networks can be used to monitor
the condition of civil infrastructure and related
geo-physical processes close to real time, and
over long periods through data logging, using
appropriately interfaced sensors.
Wine production[edit]
Wireless sensor networks are used to monitor
wine production, both in the field and the cellar.
[15]
Threat detection[edit]
The Wide Area Tracking System (WATS) is a
prototype network for detecting a ground-based
nuclear device[16] such as a nuclear "briefcase
bomb." WATS is being developed at
the Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory (LLNL). WATS would be made up of
wireless gamma and neutron sensors connected
through a communications network. Data picked
up by the sensors undergoes "data fusion", which
converts the information into easily interpreted
forms; this data fusion is the most important
aspect of the system.[17][obsolete source]
The data fusion process occurs within the sensor
network rather than at a centralized computer
and is performed by a specially developed
algorithm based on Bayesian statistics.[18] WATS
would not use a centralized computer for
analysis because researchers found that factors
such as latency and available bandwidth tended
to create significant bottlenecks. Data processed
in the field by the network itself (by transferring
small amounts of data between neighboring
sensors) is faster and makes the network more
scalable.[18]
An important factor in WATS development
is ease of deployment, since more sensors both
improves the detection rate and reduces false
alarms.[18] WATS sensors could be deployed in
permanent positions or mounted in vehicles for
mobile protection of specific locations. One
barrier to the implementation of WATS is the
size, weight, energy requirements and cost of
currently available wireless sensors.[18] The
development of improved sensors is a major
component of current research at the
Nonproliferation, Arms Control, and International
Security (NAI) Directorate at LLNL.
WATS was profiled to the U.S. House of
Representatives' Military Research and
Development Subcommittee on October 1, 1997
during a hearing on nuclear terrorism and
countermeasures.[17] On August 4, 1998 in a
subsequent meeting of that subcommittee,
Chairman Curt Weldon stated that research
funding for WATS had been cut by
the Clinton administration to a subsistence level
and that the program had been poorly re-
organized.[19]

Characteristics[edit]
The main characteristics of a WSN include
 Power consumption constraints for nodes
using batteries or energy harvesting.
Examples of suppliers are ReVibe
Energy[20] and Perpetuum[21]
 Ability to cope with node failures (resilience)
 Some mobility of nodes (for highly mobile
nodes see MWSNs)
 Heterogeneity of nodes
 Homogeneity of nodes
 Scalability to large scale of deployment
 Ability to withstand harsh environmental
conditions
 Ease of use
 Cross-layer optimization[22][23][24]
Cross-layer is becoming an important studying
area for wireless communications.[23] In addition,
the traditional layered approach presents three
main problems:
1. Traditional layered approach cannot share
different information among different
layers, which leads to each layer not having
complete information. The traditional
layered approach cannot guarantee the
optimization of the entire network.
2. The traditional layered approach does not
have the ability to adapt to the
environmental change.
3. Because of the interference between the
different users, access conflicts, fading, and
the change of environment in the wireless
sensor networks, traditional layered
approach for wired networks is not
applicable to wireless networks.
So the cross-layer can be used to make the
optimal modulation to improve the transmission
performance, such as data rate, energy
efficiency, QoS (Quality of Service), etc.
[23] Sensor nodes can be imagined as small
computers which are extremely basic in terms of
their interfaces and their components. They
usually consist of a processing unit with limited
computational power and limited
memory, sensors or MEMS (including specific
conditioning circuitry), a communication
device (usually radio transceivers or
alternatively optical), and a power source usually
in the form of a battery. Other possible inclusions
are energy harvesting modules,
[25] secondary ASICs, and possibly secondary
communication interface (e.g. RS-232 or USB).
The base stations are one or more components
of the WSN with much more computational,
energy and communication resources. They act
as a gateway between sensor nodes and the end
user as they typically forward data from the WSN
on to a server. Other special components
in routing based networks are routers, designed
to compute, calculate and distribute the routing
tables.[26]

Platforms[edit]
Hardware[edit]
Main article: sensor node
One major challenge in a WSN is to produce low
cost and tiny sensor nodes. There are an
increasing number of small companies producing
WSN hardware and the commercial situation can
be compared to home computing in the 1970s.
Many of the nodes are still in the research and
development stage, particularly their software.
Also inherent to sensor network adoption is the
use of very low power methods for radio
communication and data acquisition.
In many applications, a WSN communicates with
a Local Area Network or Wide Area
Network through a gateway. The Gateway acts
as a bridge between the WSN and the other
network. This enables data to be stored and
processed by devices with more resources, for
example, in a remotely located server. A wireless
wide area network used primarily for low-power
devices is known as a Low-Power Wide-Area
Network (LPWAN).
Wireless[edit]
There are several wireless standards and
solutions for sensor node
connectivity. Thread and ZigBee can connect
sensors operating at 2.4 GHz with a data rate of
250kbit/s. Many use a lower frequency to
increase radio range (typically 1 km), for
example Z-wave operates at 915 MHz and in the
EU 868 MHz has been widely used but these
have a lower data rate (typically 50 kb/s). The
IEEE 802.15.4 working group provides a standard
for low power device connectivity and commonly
sensors and smart meters use one of these
standards for connectivity. With the emergence
of Internet of Things, many other proposals have
been made to provide sensor connectivity.
LORA[27] is a form of LPWAN which provides long
range low power wireless connectivity for
devices, which has been used in smart meters
and other long range sensor applications. Wi-
SUN[28] connects devices at home. NarrowBand
IOT[29] and LTE-M[30] can connect up to millions of
sensors and devices using cellular technology.
Software[edit]
Energy is the scarcest resource of WSN nodes,
and it determines the lifetime of WSNs. WSNs
may be deployed in large numbers in various
environments, including remote and hostile
regions, where ad hoc communications are a key
component. For this reason, algorithms and
protocols need to address the following issues:
 Increased lifespan
 Robustness and fault tolerance
 Self-configuration
Lifetime maximization: Energy/Power
Consumption of the sensing device should be
minimized and sensor nodes should be energy
efficient since their limited energy resource
determines their lifetime. To conserve power,
wireless sensor nodes normally power off both
the radio transmitter and the radio receiver when
not in use.[23]
Routing protocols[edit]
Wireless sensor networks are composed of low-
energy, small-size, and low-range unattended
sensor nodes. Recently, it has been observed
that by periodically turning on and off the
sensing and communication capabilities of
sensor nodes, we can significantly reduce the
active time and thus prolong network lifetime. [31]
[32] However, this duty cycling may result in high
network latency, routing overhead, and neighbor
discovery delays due to asynchronous sleep and
wake-up scheduling. These limitations call for a
countermeasure for duty-cycled wireless sensor
networks which should minimize routing
information, routing traffic load, and energy
consumption. Researchers from Sungkyunkwan
University have proposed a lightweight non-
increasing delivery-latency interval routing
referred as LNDIR. This scheme can discover
minimum latency routes at each non-increasing
delivery-latency interval instead of each time
slot.[clarification needed] Simulation experiments
demonstrated the validity of this novel approach
in minimizing routing information stored at each
sensor. Furthermore, this novel routing can also
guarantee the minimum delivery latency from
each source to the sink. Performance
improvements of up to 12-fold and 11-fold are
observed in terms of routing traffic load
reduction and energy efficiency, respectively, as
compared to existing schemes.[33]
Operating systems[edit]
Operating systems for wireless sensor network
nodes are typically less complex than general-
purpose operating systems. They more strongly
resemble embedded systems, for two reasons.
First, wireless sensor networks are typically
deployed with a particular application in mind,
rather than as a general platform. Second, a
need for low costs and low power leads most
wireless sensor nodes to have low-power
microcontrollers ensuring that mechanisms such
as virtual memory are either unnecessary or too
expensive to implement.
It is therefore possible to use embedded
operating systems such as eCos or uC/OS for
sensor networks. However, such operating
systems are often designed with real-time
properties.
TinyOS is perhaps the first operating system
specifically designed for wireless sensor
networks. TinyOS is based on an event-driven
programming model instead of multithreading.
TinyOS programs are composed of event
handlers and tasks with run-to-completion
semantics. When an external event occurs, such
as an incoming data packet or a sensor reading,
TinyOS signals the appropriate event handler to
handle the event. Event handlers can post tasks
that are scheduled by the TinyOS kernel some
time later.
LiteOS is a newly developed OS for wireless
sensor networks, which provides UNIX-like
abstraction and support for the C programming
language.
Contiki is an OS which uses a simpler
programming style in C while providing advances
such as 6LoWPAN and Protothreads.
RIOT (operating system) is a more recent real-
time OS including similar functionality to Contiki.
PreonVM[34] is an OS for wireless sensor
networks, which provides 6LoWPAN based
on Contiki and support for the Java programming
language.
Online collaborative sensor data
management platforms[edit]
Online collaborative sensor data management
platforms are on-line database services that
allow sensor owners to register and connect their
devices to feed data into an online database for
storage and also allow developers to connect to
the database and build their own applications
based on that data. Examples include Xively and
the Wikisensing platform. Such platforms simplify
online collaboration between users over diverse
data sets ranging from energy and environment
data to that collected from transport services.
Other services include allowing developers to
embed real-time graphs & widgets in websites;
analyse and process historical data pulled from
the data feeds; send real-time alerts from any
datastream to control scripts, devices and
environments.
The architecture of the Wikisensing
system[35] describes the key components of such
systems to include APIs and interfaces for online
collaborators, a middleware containing the
business logic needed for the sensor data
management and processing and a storage
model suitable for the efficient storage and
retrieval of large volumes of data.

Simulation[edit]
At present, agent-based modeling and simulation
is the only paradigm which allows the simulation
of complex behavior in the environments of
wireless sensors (such as flocking).[36] Agent-
based simulation of wireless sensor and ad hoc
networks is a relatively new paradigm. Agent-
based modelling was originally based on social
simulation.
Network simulators like Opnet, Tetcos NetSim
and NS can be used to simulate a wireless sensor
network.

Other concepts[edit]
Security[edit]
Infrastructure-less architecture (i.e. no gateways
are included, etc.) and inherent requirements
(i.e. unattended working environment, etc.) of
WSNs might pose several weak points that
attract adversaries. Therefore, security is a big
concern when WSNs are deployed for special
applications such as military and healthcare.
Owing to their unique characteristics, traditional
security methods of computer networks would be
useless (or less effective) for WSNs. Hence, lack
of security mechanisms would cause intrusions
towards those networks. These intrusions need
to be detected and mitigation methods should be
applied.
There have been important innovations in
securing wireless sensor networks. Most wireless
embedded networks use omni-directional
antennas and therefore neighbors can overhear
communication in and out of nodes. This was
used this to develop a primitive called “local
monitoring”[37] which was used for detection of
sophisticated attacks, like blackhole or
wormhole, which degrade the throughput of
large networks to close-to-zero. This primitive
has since been used by many researchers and
commercial wireless packet sniffers. This was
subsequently refined for more sophisticated
attacks such as with collusion, mobility, and
multi-antenna, multi-channel devices.[38]
Distributed sensor network[edit]
If a centralized architecture is used in a sensor
network and the central node fails, then the
entire network will collapse, however the
reliability of the sensor network can be increased
by using a distributed control architecture.
Distributed control is used in WSNs for the
following reasons:
1. Sensor nodes are prone to failure,
2. For better collection of data,
3. To provide nodes with backup in case of
failure of the central node.
There is also no centralised body to allocate the
resources and they have to be self organized.
As for the distributed filtering over distributed
sensor network. the general setup is to observe
the underlying process through a group of
sensors organized according to a given network
topology, which renders the individual observer
estimates the system state based not only on its
own measurement but also on its neighbors’. [39]
Data integration and sensor web[edit]
The data gathered from wireless sensor networks
is usually saved in the form of numerical data in
a central base station. Additionally, the Open
Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is specifying
standards for interoperability interfaces and
metadata encodings that enable real time
integration of heterogeneous sensor webs into
the Internet, allowing any individual to monitor or
control wireless sensor networks through a web
browser.
In-network processing[edit]
To reduce communication costs some algorithms
remove or reduce nodes' redundant sensor
information and avoid forwarding data that is of
no use. This technique has been used, for
instance, for distributed anomaly detection[40][41]
[42][43] or distributed optimization.[44] As nodes
can inspect the data they forward, they can
measure averages or directionality for example
of readings from other nodes. For example, in
sensing and monitoring applications, it is
generally the case that neighboring sensor nodes
monitoring an environmental feature typically
register similar values. This kind of data
redundancy due to the spatial correlation
between sensor observations inspires techniques
for in-network data aggregation and mining.
Aggregation reduces the amount of network
traffic which helps to reduce energy consumption
on sensor nodes.[45][46] Recently, it has been
found that network gateways also play an
important role in improving energy efficiency of
sensor nodes by scheduling more resources for
the nodes with more critical energy efficiency
need and advanced energy efficient scheduling
algorithms need to be implemented at network
gateways for the improvement of the overall
network energy efficiency.[23][47]
Secure data aggregation[edit]
This is a form of in-network processing
where sensor nodes are assumed to be
unsecured with limited available energy, while
the base station is assumed to be secure with
unlimited available energy. Aggregation
complicates the already existing security
challenges for wireless sensor networks[48] and
requires new security techniques tailored
specifically for this scenario. Providing security to
aggregate data in wireless sensor networks is
known as secure data aggregation in WSN.[46][48]
[49] were the first few works discussing
techniques for secure data aggregation in
wireless sensor networks.
Two main security challenges in secure data
aggregation are confidentiality and integrity of
data. While encryption is traditionally used to
provide end to end confidentiality in wireless
sensor network, the aggregators in a secure data
aggregation scenario need to decrypt the
encrypted data to perform aggregation. This
exposes the plaintext at the aggregators, making
the data vulnerable to attacks from an
adversary. Similarly an aggregator can inject
false data into the aggregate and make the base
station accept false data. Thus, while data
aggregation improves energy efficiency of a
network, it complicates the existing security
challenges.[50]

See also[edit]
 Autonomous system
 Bluetooth mesh networking
 Center for Embedded Network Sensing
 List of ad hoc routing protocols
 Meteorological instrumentation
 Mobile wireless sensor networks
 OpenWSN
 Optical wireless communications
 Robotic mapping
 Smart, connected products
 Unattended ground sensor
 Virtual sensor network
 Wireless ad hoc networks

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Further reading[edit]
 Chain-based Gateway nodes routing for
energy efficiency in WSN
Amir Hozhabri*1, Mohammadreza Eslaminejad 2,
Mitra Mahrouyan 3 1*- Department of Computer
Science and Information Technology, Zand
Institute of Higher Education, Shiraz, Iran 2-
Department of Computer Science and
Information Technology, Zand Institute of Higher
Education, Shiraz, Iran 3- Department of Physics,
Faculty of Science, University of Isfahan, Isfahan,
Iran
 Kiran Maraiya, Kamal Kant, Nitin Gupta
"Wireless Sensor Network: A Review on Data
Aggregation" International Journal of Scientific
& Engineering Research Volume 2 Issue 4,
April 2011.
 Chalermek Intanagonwiwat, Deborah Estrin,
Ramesh Govindan, John Heidemann, "Impact
of Network Density on Data Aggregation in
Wireless SensorNetworks," November 4, 2001.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons
has media related
to Wireless sensor
networks.
 IEEE 802.15.4 Standardization Committee
 Secure Data Aggregation in Wireless Sensor
Networks: A *Survey
 A list of secure aggregation proposals for WSN
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