Functions
Fundamentals of Computer and Programming
Hossein Zeinali
Slides by Dr. Bahador Bakhshi
CE Department, Amirkabir University of Technology
What We Will Learn
Introduction
Passing input parameters
Producing output
Scope of variables
Storage Class of variables
Function usage example
Recursion
2
What We Will Learn
Introduction
Passing input parameters
Producing output
Scope of variables
Storage Class of variables
Function usage example
Recursion
3
Introduction
Until now, we learned to develop simple algorithms
Interactions, Mathematics, Decisions, and Loops
Real problems: very complex
Compressing a file
Calculator
Games, MS Word, Firefox, …
Cannot be developed at once
Divide the problem into smaller sub-problems
Solve the sub-problems
Put the solutions altogether to get the final solution
Modular programming
4
Modular programming
Solving a large and complex problem
Design the overall algorithm
Some portions are black-box
We know what each box does
But we don't worry how
Later, we think about the black-boxes and
develop them
Black-boxes are implemented by functions
5
Modular programming: Advantages
Easy to develop and understand
Reusability
Something is used frequently
Mathematic: Square, Power, Sin, …
Programming: Printing, Reading
Develop it one time, use it many times
Multiple developers can work on different parts
Each module can be tested and debugged
separately
6
Functions in C
Functions in mathematics
z = f(x,y)
Functions in C
Queries: Return a value
sin(), fabs()
Commands: do some tasks, do not return any
value
printf_my_info(...)
7
Functions in C
Three steps to use functions in C
Function prototype (declaration) ()اعالن تابع
()معرفي الگوي تابع
Introduce the function to compiler
Function definition ()تعريف تابع
What the function does
Function call ()فراخواني تابع
Use the function
8
Function prototype
<output type> <function name>(<input
parameter types>);
<output type>
Queries: int, float,…
Command: void
<function name> is an identifier
<input parameter list>
<type>, <type>, …
int, float, …
void
9
Function definition
<output type> <function name>(<input parameters>)
{
<statements>
}
<output type>
Queries: int, float,…
Command: void
<function name> is an identifier
<input parameters>
<type> <identifier>, <type> <identifier>, …
int in, float f, …
void
Function definition should be out of other functions
Function in function is not allowed
10
Function call
Command function
<function name> (inputs);
Query function
<variable> = <function name>(inputs);
Inputs should match by function definition
Functions are called by another function
Function call comes inside in a function
11
Example
/* Function declaration */
void my_info(void);
int main(void){
printf("This is my info");
my_info(); /* Function call */
printf("=============");
return 0;
}
/* Function definition */
void my_info(void){
printf("Student name is Dennis Ritchie\n");
printf("Student number: 9822222\n");
} 12
Function declaration is optional if program is
developed in a single file
void my_info(void){
printf("My name is Dennis Ritchie\n");
printf("My student number: 98222222\n");
}
int main(void){
my_info();
printf("--------------\n");
my_info();
return 0;
}
13
Function Declaration?!!!!
Is function declaration needed?
Is there any useful application of function
declaration?
Yes!
Libraries are implemented using it
.h files contains the function declarations
and also other definitions
.so, .a, .dll, … are the compiled function definitions
14
What We Will Learn
Introduction
Passing input parameters
Producing output
Scope of variables
Storage Class of variables
Function usage example
Recursion
15
Input Parameters
Inputs of function
No input: void
One or multiple inputs
Each input should have a type
Input parameters are split by “,”
void f(void)
void f(int a)
void f(int a, float b)
void f(int a, b) //compile error
16
Example: print_sub function
#include <stdio.h> تابعي كه دو عدد را بگيرد و تفاضل
. انها را چاپ كند
void print_sub(double a, double b){
double res;
res = a - b;
printf("Sub of %f and %f is %f\n", a, b, res);
}
int main(void){
double d1 = 10, d2 = 20;
print_sub(56.0, 6.0); //What is the output?
print_sub(d1, d2); //output?
print_sub(d1, d2 + d2); //output?
return 0;
}
17
How Does Function Call Work?
Function call is implemented by “stack”
Stack is a logical part of the main memory
Variables of function and its input variables are in
stack
When a function calls
Its variables including the inputs are allocated in stack
The value of input parameters from caller function is
pushed to stack of called function
They are copied in to the variables of function
When function finished, its stack is freed
18
print_sub: What happen?
print_sub(56.0, 6.0);
56.0 is copied the memory location a
6.0 is copied to memory location b
double a = 56.0;
double b = 6.0;
double res;
res = a - b;
19
print_sub: What happen?
print_sub(d1, d2);
Value of d1 is copied to memory location a
Value of d2 is copied to memory location b
double a = 10.1;
double b = 20.2;
double res;
res = a - b;
Call by Value
20
Call by value
In call by value mechanism
The values are copied to the function
If we change values in the function
The copied version is changed
The original value does not affected
Call by value inputs cannot be used to
produce output
21
add function (wrong version)
void add(double a, double b, double res){
res = a + b;
return;
}
int main(void){
double d1 = 10.1, d2 = 20.2;
double result = 0;
add(56.0, 6.7, result);
printf("result = %f\n", result); result = 0
add(d1, d2, result);
printf("result = %f\n", result); result = 0
}
22
Stack in C/C++
#include <stdio.h>
int b(int i)
{ return i; }
int c(int j)
{ return j; }
int a(int i, int j)
{
b(i);
c(j);
return 0;
}
int main()
{
a(3, 5);
return 0;
}
23
What We Will Learn
Introduction
Passing input parameters
Producing output
Scope of variables
Storage Class of variables
Function usage example
Recursion
24
Producing output
What we have seen are the “Command”
Query functions
Produce output
Output cannot be produced by the “call by
value” parameters
To produce an output
Declare output type
Generate the output by return
25
The return command
To generate a result by a function
return <value>;
Only one value can be returned
return finishes the running function
Function can have multiple return
Only one of them runs each time
The type of the returned value = the result type
Otherwise, cast
26
Exmaple: my_fabs (Version 1)
double my_fabs(double x){
double res;
if(x >= 0)
res = x;
else
res = -1 * x;
return res;
}
void main(void){
double d = -10;
double b;
b = my_fabs(d);
printf("%lf\n", b); 10
printf("%lf\n", my_fabs(-2 * b)); 20
}
27
Exmaple: my_fabs (Version 2)
double my_fabs(double x){
if(x >= 0)
return x;
return (-1 * x);
}
void main(void){
double d = -10;
double b;
b = my_fabs(d);
printf("b = %lf\n", b);
b = my_fabs(-2 * d);
printf("b = %lf\n", b);
}
28
Output of functions
A function can produce at most one output
Output of functions can be dropped
double f;
sin(f); //we drop the output of sin
gcd(10, 20);
//we drop the output of gcd
29
Casting in functions
Cast for input
Prototype: void f(int a, double b);
Call: f(10.1, 20.2);
Cast for output
Prototype: int f(int a);
Call: double d = f(10);
Cast in return
int f(int a){
...
return 10.20
}
30
Be careful: empty input/output type
If output or input type is not specified int
Casting may not work
f1(a){
printf("a = %d\n", a); return a / 2;
}
f2(int a){
printf("a = %d\n", a); return a / 2;
}
f3(float a){
printf("a = %f\n", a); return a / 2;
}
a=1
int main(){ 0
printf("%d\n", f1(10.5)); a = 10
printf("%d\n", f2(10.5)); 5
printf("%d\n", f3(10.5)); a = 10.500000
return 0; 5
} 31
Inline Functions & Macro
Function call using stack has its overhead
2 approaches to reduce the overhead
inline function
To ask from compiler to compile it as inline, but
no guarantee
inline int f(float x)
Macros
#define PRINT_INT(X) printf("%d\n", X)
32
Example: GCD ()بزرگ ترين مقسوم عليه مشترك
#define PRINT_INT(x) printf("%d\n",x); \
printf("===================\n");
inline int gcd(int a, int b){ /* return gcd of a and b */
int temp;
while(b != 0){
temp = a % b;
a = b;
b = temp;
}
return a;
}
void main(void){
int i = 20, j = 35, g;
g = gcd(i, j);
printf("GCD of %d and %d = ", i , j);
PRINT_INT(g);
g = gcd(j, i);
printf("GCD of %d and %d = ", j , i);
PRINT_INT(g);
}
33
What We Will Learn
Introduction
Passing input parameters
Producing output
Scope of variables
Storage Class of variables
Function usage example
Recursion
34
Scope of Variables
Variables
Are declared in the start of functions
Are used any where in the function after declaration
Cannot be used outside of function
Cannot be used in other functions
Scope of variable
A range of code that the variable can be used
Variable cannot not be used outside of its scope
Compile error
35
Scopes and Blocks
Scopes are determined by Blocks
Start with { and finished by }
Example: statements of a function, statement of a
if or while, …
Variables
Can be declared in a block
Can be used in the declared block
Cannot be used outside the declared block
The declared block is the scope of the variable
36
Variables in Blocks
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void){
int i;
for(i = 1; i <= 10; i++){
int number;
printf("Enter %d-th number: ", i);
scanf("%d", &number);
if((number % 2) == 0)
printf("Your number is even\n");
else
printf("Your number is odd\n");
}
/* compile error
printf("The last number is %d\n", number); */
return 0;
}
37
Nested Scopes/Blocks
Scopes can be nested
Example: Nested if, nested for, …
void main(){ //block 1
int i;
{ //block 2
int j;
{ //block 3
int k;
}
int m;
}
}
38
Variables in Nested Blocks
All variables from outer block can be used
in inner blocks
Scope of outer block contains the inner block
Variables in inner block cannot be used in
outer block
Scope of the inner block does not contains the
outer block
39
Variables in Nested Blocks: Example
int k = 0;
for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++){
/* block 1 */
if(i > 5){
/* block 2 */
int j = i;
...
}
while(k > 10){
/* block 3 */
int l = i;
/* int m = j; compile error */
...
}
/* k = l; compile error */
}
40
Same Variables in Nested Block
If a variable in inner block has the same identifier of a
variable in outer block
The inner variable hides the outer variable
Changing inner variables does not change outer variable
int j = 20, i = 10;
printf("outer i = %d, %d\n", i, j);
while(…){ Do NOT
int i = 100;
j = 200; Use It!!!
printf("inner i = %d, %d\n", i, j);
...
}
printf("outer i = %d, %d\n", i, j);
41
Local Variables
All variables defined in a function are the local
variable of the function
Can ONLY be used in the function, not other functions
void func(void){
int i, j;
float f;
/* These are local variables */
}
int main(void){
i = 10; /* compile error, why? */
f = 0; /* compile error, why? */
}
42
Global/External Variables
Global variables are defined outside of all functions
Global variables are initialized to zero
Global variables are available to all subsequent
functions
void f(){
i = 0; // compile error
}
int i;
void g(){
int j = i; // g can use i
}
43
Global/External Variables: Example
int i, j;
float f;
void func(void){
printf("i = %d \n", i);
printf("f = %f \n", f);
i = 20;
}
void f1(){
printf("%d", i);
}
int main(void){ i = 0
f = 1000;
func(); f = 1000
f1();
return 0;
}
44
Parameter Passing by Global Variables: my_fabs (V.3)
double x;
void my_fabs(void){
x = (x > 0) ? x : -1 * x;
}
Don’t use this method.
Parameters should be passed
void main(void){ by input parameter list.
double b, d = -10;
x = d; Global variable are used to
define (large) variables that
my_fabs();
are used in many functions
b = x;
printf("b = %f\n", b);
}
45
What We Will Learn
Introduction
Passing input parameters
Producing output
Scope of variables
Storage Class of variables
Function usage example
Recursion
46
Storage Classes
Storage class
How memory is allocated for the variable
Until when the variable exists
How it is initialized
Storage classes in C
Automatic ()اتوماتيك
External ()خارجي
Static ()ايستا
Register ()ثبات
47
Storage Classes: Automatic
All local variables are automatic by default
Input parameters of a function
Variables defined inside a function/block
Keyword “auto” is optional before them
Generated at the start of each run of the block
Destroyed at the end of each run of the block
Are not initialized
48
Storage Classes: External
All global variables are external by default
Are initialized by 0
Are generated when program starts
Are destroyed when program finishes
Usage of keyword “extern”
To use global variables in other files
To use global variables before definition
To emphasize that variable is global
This usage is optional
Access to a global variable with the same name
49
Storage Classes: Static
Keyword “static” comes before them
For local variables:
1) Generated in the first run of the block
2) Destroyed when program finishes
3) Initialized
If no value initialized by 0
Only initialized in the first run of the block
50
Storage Classes: Static
Keyword “static” comes before them
For global variables:
1) Generated when program starts
2) Destroyed when program finishes
3) Always initialized
If no value initialized by 0
4) Is not accessible for other files
51
Storage Classes: Register
Keyword “register” comes before them
Can be used for local variables
Compiler tries to allocated the variable in
registers of CPU
But does not guaranteed
Registers are very fast and small memories
Improve performance
52
Storage Classes, Auto: Examples
void f(int i, double d){
int i2;
auto int i3;
double d2;
auto double d3;
}
All variables (i, d, i2, i3, d2, d3) are auto variables
53
Storage Classes, Extern: Examples
int i = 10, j = 20;
void print(void){
printf("i = %d, j = %d\n", i, j);
}
int main(void){
extern int i; // i refers the global i
int j; // j is new variable
print(); i = 10, j = 20
i = 1000;
j = 2000;
print(); i = 1000, j = 20
return 0;
}
54
Storage Classes: Examples
int i;
void func(void){
int j;
printf("i = %d \n", i);
printf("j = %d \n", j);
i = 20;
}
int main(void){
func(); i=0
j = ???
func();
i = 20
i = 30; j = ??
func(); i = 30
return 0; j = ??
}
55
Storage Classes, Static: Examples
void func(void){
int j;
static int i;
printf("i = %d \n", i);
printf("j = %d \n", j);
i = 20;
}
int main(void){
func(); i=0
func(); j = ???
i = 20
/* i = 30; compile error, why? */ j = ???
func(); i = 20
return 0; j = ???
}
56
Storage Classes, Static: Examples
void func(void){
int j;
static int i = 10;
printf("i = %d \n", i);
printf("j = %d \n", j);
i = 20;
}
int main(void){
i = 10
func(); j = ???
func(); i = 20
j = ???
return 0;
}
57
Storage Classes, Register: Examples
register int i;
for(i = 0; i < 100; i++)
…
58
Be careful: loop & automatic variables
According to standard:
“For such an object that does not have a variable length array
type, its lifetime extends from entry into the block with which it
is associated until execution of that block ends in any way.”
Variable is defined in a block of a loop
1) the variable retains its value between iterations
of the loop if it is NOT variable length array
2) the variable does NOT retain its value between
iterations of the loop if it is a variable length array
59
loop & automatic variables
int main(){
int i;
for(i = 0; i < 5; i++){
int j;
if(i){
printf("&j = %p, j = %d\n"
, &j, j);
j++;
}
&j = 0xffffcc38, j = 0
else
&j = 0xffffcc38, j = 1
j = i; &j = 0xffffcc38, j = 2
} &j = 0xffffcc38, j = 3
}
60
loop & automatic variables
int main(){
int i;
for(i = 0; i < 5; i++){
int j[5 * i + 1];
if(i){
printf("&j[0] = %p, j[0] = %d\n"
, &(j[0]), j[0]);
j[0]++;
}
&j[0] = 0xffffcbd0, j[0] = 12291
else &j[0] = 0xffffcbc0, j[0] = 230944
j[0] = i; &j[0] = 0xffffcbb0, j[0] = 230944
&j[0] = 0xffffcb90, j[0] = -2148
}
}
61
loop & automatic variables
int main(){
int i;
for(i = 0; i < 5; i++){
int j[5 * 3 + 1];
if(i){
printf("&j[0] = %p, j[0] = %d\n"
, &(j[0]), j[0]);
j[0]++;
}
else &j[0] = 0xffffcbf0, j[0] = 0
&j[0] = 0xffffcbf0, j[0] = 1
j[0] = i;
&j[0] = 0xffffcbf0, j[0] = 2
} &j[0] = 0xffffcbf0, j[0] = 3
}
62
What We Will Learn
Introduction
Passing input parameters
Producing output
Scope of variables
Storage Class of variables
Function usage example
Recursion
63
How to use functions: Example
An Example
Goldbach’s Conjecture ()حدس گلدباخ
Any even number larger than 2 can be expressed
as sum of two prim numbers
It is not proved yet!
1,000,000$ to proof ;-)
Write a program that takes a set numbers
which ends by 0 and checks correctness of
the conjecture
64
Main Overall Algorithm
While(number is not zero)
if(number >= 2 and even)
Check Goldbach’s Conjecture
else
Print some message
read next number This is a module
It is a black-box in this step
65
Check Goldbach’s Conjecture Algorithm
Algorithm: Goldbach
Input: n
Output: 0 if conjecture is incorrect else 1
i=2
while (i <= n/2)
j=n–i
if(is_prime(j))
conjecture is correct This is a module
return
It is a black-box in this step
i = next_prime_number(i)
Conjecture is incorrect
66
is_prime algorithm
Algorithm: is_prime
Input: n
Output: 1 if n is prime else 0
for(i from 2 to sqrt(n))
if(n % i == 0)
n is not prime
n is prime
67
next_prime_number algorithm
Algorithm: next_prime_number
Input: n
Output: prime number
if n is 2
output is 3
else
do
n=n+2
while(is_prime(n) == 0)
output is n
68
Putting them altogether
int is_prime(int n){
…
}
int next_prime_number(int n){
…
}
int check_Goldbach(int n){
…
}
int main(void){
…
}
69
What We Will Learn
Introduction
Passing input parameters
Producing output
Scope of variables
Storage Class of variables
Function usage example
Recursion
70
Introduction
Iteration vs. Recursion
Factorial
n! = n x n-1 x … x 2 x 1
n! = n x (n-1) !
GCD
GCD(a, b) = Euclidean Algorithm
GCD(a, b) = GCD(b, a mod b)
71
Introduction
Original problem can be solved by
Solving a similar but simpler problem (recursion)
(n-1)! in factorial, GCD(b, a mod b)
There is a simple (basic) problem which we
can solve it directly (without recursion)
Factorial: 1! = 1
GCD: b == 0
72
Recursion in C
Recursive Algorithm
An algorithm uses itself to solve the problem
There is a basic problem with known solution
Recursive Algorithms are implemented by
recursive functions
Recursive function
A function which calls itself
There is a condition that it does not call itself
73
#include <stdio.h>
تابع بازگشتي براي محاسبه فاك توريل
int factorial(int n){
int res, tmp;
if(n == 1)
/* The basic problem */
res = 1;
else{
/* recursive call */
tmp = factorial(n - 1);
res = n * tmp;
}
return res;
}
void main(void){
int i = 4;
int fac = factorial(i);
printf("%d! = %d\n", i, fac);
} 74
Function Call Graph + Stacks
factorial(4)
n = 4, tmp = ?, res = ?
factorial(3)
n = 3, tmp = ?, res = ?
factorial(2)
n = 2, tmp = ?, res = ?
factorial(1)
n = 1, res = ?
75
Function Call Graph + Stacks
factorial(4)
n = 4, tmp = ?, res = ?
factorial(3)
n = 3, tmp = ?, res = ?
factorial(2)
n = 2, tmp = ?, res = ?
factorial(1)
n = 1, res = 1
76
Function Call Graph + Stacks
factorial(4)
n = 4, tmp = ?, res = ?
factorial(3)
n = 3, tmp = ?, res = ?
factorial(2)
n = 2, tmp = 1, res = 2
factorial(1)
n = 1, res = 1
77
Function Call Graph + Stacks
factorial(4)
n = 4, tmp = ?, res = ?
factorial(3)
n = 3, tmp = 2, res = 6
factorial(2)
n = 2, tmp = 1, res = 2
factorial(1)
n = 1, res = 1
78
Function Call Graph + Stacks
factorial(4)
n = 4,tmp = 6,res = 24
factorial(3)
n = 3, tmp = 2, res = 6
factorial(2)
n = 2, tmp = 1, res = 2
factorial(1)
n = 1, res = 1
79
Examples
Recursive version of GCD?
Recursive version of Fibonacci numbers
Fibonacci numbers
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...
Print digits: left-to-right and right-to-left
80
#include <stdio.h>
م.م.تابع بازگشتي محاسبه ب
int GCD(int a, int b){
if(b == 0)
return a;
else
return GCD(b, a % b);
}
int main(void){
printf("GCD(1, 10) = %d \n", GCD(1, 10));
printf("GCD(10, 1) = %d \n", GCD(10, 1));
printf("GCD(15, 100) = %d \n", GCD(15, 100));
printf("GCD(201, 27) = %d \n", GCD(201, 27));
return 0;
}
81
#include <stdio.h>
امn-تابع بازگشتي محاسبه جمله
int fibo(int n){ اعداد فيبوناچي
if(n == 1)
return 1;
else if(n == 2)
return 1;
else
return fibo(n - 1) + fibo(n - 2);
}
int main(void){
printf("fibo(1) = %d\n", fibo(1));
printf("fibo(3) = %d\n", fibo(3));
printf("fibo(5) = %d\n", fibo(5));
printf("fibo(8) = %d\n", fibo(8));
return 0;
} 82
#include <stdio.h>
تابع بازگشتي چاپ ارقام از راست به
void print_digit_right_left(int n){ چپ
int digit = n % 10;
printf("%d \n", digit);
if(n >= 10)
print_digit_right_left(n / 10);
}
int main(void){
printf("\n print_digit_right_left(123): ");
print_digit_right_left(123);
printf("\n print_digit_right_left(1000): ");
print_digit_right_left (1000);
return 0;
} 83
#include <stdio.h>
تابع بازگشتي چاپ ارقام از چپ به
void print_digit_left_right(int n){ راست
if(n >= 10)
print_digit_left_right(n / 10);
int digit = n % 10;
printf("%d \n", digit);
}
int main(void){
printf("\n print_digit_left_right(123): ");
print_digit_left_right(123);
printf("\n print_digit_left_right(1000): ");
print_digit_left_right (1000);
return 0;
} 84
Indirect recursion
What we have seen are direct recursion
A function calls itself directly
Indirect recursion
A function calls itself using another function
Example:
Function A calls function B
Function B calls function A
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
تابع بازگشتي تعيين زوج يا فرد
bool is_even(int n);
bool is_odd(int n);
بودن عدد
bool is_even(int n){
if(n == 0)
return true;
if(n == 1)
return false;
else
return is_odd(n - 1);
}
bool is_odd(int n){
if(n == 0)
return false;
if(n == 1)
return true;
else
return is_even(n - 1);
} 86
int main(void){
if(is_even(20))
printf("20 is even\n");
else
printf("20 is odd\n");
printf("23 is %s\n", is_odd(23) ? "odd" : "even");
return 0;
}
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Bugs & Avoiding Them
Be careful about the order of input parameters
int diff(int a, int b){return a - b;}
diff(x,y) or diff(y,x)
Be careful about casting in functions
Recursion must finish, be careful a bout basic
problem in the recursive functions
No base problem Stack Overflow
Static variables are useful debugging
88
Reference
Reading Assignment: Chapter 5 of “C How
to Program”
89
