PoF

Guide
 Wing Definitions

Wing Area S The plan surface area of the wing

Wingspan B Distance from tip to tip

The mean geometric chord

Average chord C
(b × c = S)

Aspect Ratio AR The proportion of the span and the average chord

Root Chord CR The chord length at the wing centre line

Tip Chord CT The chord length at the wing tip

Taper Ratio CT / CR The ratio of the tip chord to the root chord

The angle between the line of 25% chords and a

Sweep Angle
perpendicular to the root chord

A rectangular wing of this chord and the same span

Mean Aerodynamic Chord MAC
would have similar pitching moment characteristics

Mean Geometric Chord Wing Area / Wing Span

Controls - Definitions

Bank Angle Angle between the lateral axis and the horizon

Pitch Angle Longitudinal axis and the horizontal plane

Rolling Rotation of the aeroplane bout the longitudinal axis

Pitching Rotation around the lateral axis

Yawing Rotation about the normal axis

 Other Definitions

Load Factor Lift / Weight

Aspect Ratio Wing Span / Mean Chord

Sideslip Angle Speed vector and plane of symmetry

Maneuverability

IAS Increase - Maneuverability Increase

IAS Decrease - Maneuverability Decrease

Control
• A stabiliser trim is less sensitive to flutter, when compared to an elevator trim
• When the control column is moved to the right, the left aileron goes down and the
right one goes up.
• When the control column is moved forward, the elevator goes down
• At high IAS, a spring tab works as a servo tab

Types of Drag

Skin friction drag

Parasite Drag Profile drag

Form drag
Independent of lift generation

Interference drag

Induced Drag

Result of lift generation

Speeds

Minimum speed at which the lift force being

VS1g generated to the flight path is equal to its
weight

VS1 Stall speed in a specified configuration

VSO Stall speed in landing configuration

Stall speed in landing configuration at

VSR
maximum weight

VS Stalling speed

A speed selected by the designer and used to

VC
assess the strength requirements in cruise
A canard will stall before the wing, which will improve stall characteristics of the aircraft

Propeller Definitions
 Types of Flaps

Effect of Tip Tanks on Drag

Induced Drag Decreases (Similar to winglets)

Parasite Drag Increases

 Design Speeds - Gust

Maximum speed at which maximum Buffet onset Limit load

VA
elevator deflection up is allowed limitations factor

Design speed for maximum gust

VB
intensity

Recommended turbulence penetration

VRA
speed

Extreme right limitation for both gust

VD
and manoeuvre diagrams

Minimum control speed during

VMCL
approach and landing
Speed selected by designer and used
VC to assess the strength requirements in
cruise
Maximum speed at which the
VNE
aeroplane may be flown

VMO Should not be greater than VC

Fwd CG
Minimum control speeds in asymmetric
VMC reduces
flight
VMC

In (behind) an oblique shock wave, total pressure will decrease because dynamic pressure
will be turned into heat

Mach number does not affect low speed buffet, but affects high speed buffet

Sideslip angle is the angle between the speed vector and the plane of symmetry
BGS Notes

TAS
Is lower than IAS to altitudes below sea level, under ISA conditions

kgm/s2 = Newton
Nm/s = Power

Can b read from the parabolic polar diagram:

• Minimum glide ange
• Parasite drag coefficient

Lift is a component of the total aerodynamic force, perpendicular to the undisturbed airflow

Lift and drag forces depend on the pressure distribution around the aerofoil

Wing Sweep Angle

The quarter-chord line of there wing and the lateral axis

Dihedral
The wing plane and the horizontal with the aeroplane in an unbanked, level condition

Taper Ratio
Ratio between tip chord and root chord

Mean Geometric Chord

Wing area divided by wing span

Aspect Ratio
Wing span and the mean geometric chord
Wing span squared and wing area

Wing Loading
Ratio between aeroplane weight and wing area

The aerodynamic center of an aerofoil is approximately at 25% chord

Is independent of angle of attack
The pitching moment coefficient does not vary with AoA
The center of pressure CP of an aerofoil changes with angle of attack
Is where the aerodynamic lift acts on a wing

Lift is generated when:

The flow direction of a certain mass of air s changed

The aerofoil polar

A graph of the relation between the lift coefficient and the drag coefficient

The induced drag coefficient is proportional to CL2

Induced AoA is due to downwash due to tip vortices

Induced drag is due to downwash generated by tip vortices

The total drag of an aerofoil in a 2D flow comprises of:

• Pressure drag
• Skin friction drag

Parasite drag is directly proportional to the square of the speed

Airplane drag is lowest when parasite drag is equal to induced drag

Stall speeds are determined with CG at the forward limit

Minimum control speeds are determined with CG at the aft limit

Load Factor
Lift/weight

Negative tail stall

A sudden reduction in the downward aerodynamic force on the tailplane

During a spin recovery, ailerons should be kept in the neutral position

Increasing sweepback increases stall speed

The wing tip can stall before the wing root in a swept back wing

In a negative tail stall — the aeroplane will show an uncontrollable pitch-down moment
Slat asymmetry causes a yawing moment
Flap asymmetry causes a rolling moment

Trailing edge flaps degrade the best angle of glide

The main function of a trailing edge flap is to:

Increase the maximum lift coefficient of the wing

A plain flap will increase CLMAX by increasing the camber of the aerofoil

Slats increase the critical AoA

The shock wave moves at the ground speed of the aeroplane across the earth s surface

The speed of sound varies with the square root of the absolute temperature

Mach number = TAS / speed of sound

It is the ratio between the TAS of the aeroplane and the speed of sound of the
undisturbed flow

Temperature decreases in an expansion wave, but the speed increases

The local speed of sound will decrease in an expansion wave, due to the temperature
decreasing

During a climb at a constant IAS the mach number will increase

Mach number increases with increasing altitude

For Descent = VMO

For Climb = MMO

A shock wave on a lift generating wing will move slightly in front of a downward deflecting
aileron

The bow wave will occur at a free stream mach number just above M=1

Increasing mass increases shock wave intensity, as the aircraft will have to fly at an
increased AoA

When the mach number is slowly

’
A normal shock wave is normal to the local flow

The first evidence of a shock wave will appear on the upper side of the wing

The relation between the mach angle (mu) and the corresponding mach number is:
sin mu = 1/M

The buffet margin increases during a decent with a constant IAS

The value of MCRIT increases with decreasing mass

Supersonic flow first occurs on the upper surface

Shock stall occurs when the lift coefficient, as a function of the mach number, reaches its
maximum value
It can occur at any AoA, if the speed is high enough to produce a large enough shock
wave

Wave drag increase increases drag above MCRIT

The following data can be obtained from the Buffet Onset Boundary Chart:
• Values of mach number at which low speed and mach buffet occur at different masses
and altitudes

MCRIT is increased by:

• Sweepback
• Thin aerofoils
• Area ruling

• Thick and large aerofoils will give the lowest MCRIT values

Vortex generators on the upper side of the wing surface will decrease shock wave induced
flow separation
They will decrease wave drag

Neutral Point
The point after which the aeroplane becomes longitudinally unstable; e when the CG
is moved beyond it in an aft direction

Sideslip Angle
The angle between the speed vector and the plane of symmetry

Swept-back wings have a positive effect on static directional stability

Dihedral increases static lateral stability, so does sweepback

Rolling and yawing occur in a dutch roll

Tendency to dutch roll increases when static lateral stability increases

Bank Angle
The angle between the lateral axis and the horizon

Pitch Angle
The angle between the longitudinal axis and the horizontal plane

Maneuverability decreases with a decrease in IAS

At high IAS the spring tab will also behave like a servo tab

A horn balance is to decrease stick forces

Mass balancing is used to prevent flutter
Balance tabs have no effect on stability

A high wing has a positive dihedral effect

Excessive free play/backlash allows flutter to start at a lower sped

VMO Should not be greater than VC

When the slope of the lift versus angle of attack curve increases, the load factor increases

Swept wings are least sensitive to turbulence

AoA = 1

Helix angle = 3

A propeller with a small blade angle is in fine pitch

A propeller with a large blade angle is in coarse pitch

Helix angle: angle between the blade angle and the AoA

A cruise propeller has a higher geometric pitch than a climb propeller

A coarse pitch propeller is better for cruise

Mass is measured in KGs

Coefficient of Drag
Ratio of drag pressure to dynamic pressure

The strength of the wing-tip vortices is inversely proportional to the speed of the aeroplane

The lift/drag ratio is a measure of efficiency

Assuming constant speed, the induced drag is proportional to the square of the lift
coefficient

Wing Sweep
The angle between the quarter chord of the wing and the lateral axis

Critical AoA does not change with a change in weight

Wing sweep decreases lift, effectiveness of high lift devices

Wings sweep increases the tendency to tip stall

Increasing forward sweep increases stall speed

Decreasing sweepback decreases stall speed

A spin could arise from large rudder deflection during a stall

The shock wave will move aft as mach number is increased

A supercritical aerofoil has a comparatively flatter upper surface

When the elevator becomes jammed, the elevator s trim tab effect will be reversed

Load factor:
Lift/weight

Increasing the chord of a propeller reduces its efficiency but increases power absorption

A forward CG reduces VMCL

Mach number or speed does not change buffet-free speed

Aft CG increases buffet-free range

Aspect ratio of the wing is the ratio between the wing span and the mean geometric chord

VMCL is for approach with all engines operating

The up-going wing produces more drag than the down-going wing

The strength of the yawing moment caused by an engine failure is independent of the CG
location

Contra-rotating propellers are on the same engine shaft

On a feathered propeller, the blade angle will be 90º and the drag at a minimum

Propeller Efficiency formula:

(Thrust x TAS) / (Torque x RPM)

CL is a variable dependent on dynamic pressure and wing area

’
Weight has no effect on critical AoA

L/D ratio is reduced in the transonic speed region compared to subsonic speed region

VNE is the speed you must never exceed in a dive

Friction drag is caused by the air s viscosity producing shear forces within the boundary
layer

In a constant speed propeller, the blades angle increase with increasing aeroplane speed

A constant speed propeller improves efficiency over a wide speed range

The torque of a propeller will be greatest at a low speed and maximum engine power
Torque is the tendency of an aircraft to rotate around the longitudinal axis in the
opposite direction to propeller rotation

Flight Path Angle

The angle between the speed vector and the horizontal plane

VMCL is not limited when the critical engine fails

The following determine the value of VMCG

Airport elevation
Temperature

The polar curve of the entire aeroplane can read the maximum CL/CD ratio and the
maximum lift coefficient

Positive wing sweep has a stabilizing effect on directional stability

Washout is the twisting of the wing along its length

Right hand prop = clockwise

VNO should not be exceeded except in still air

A forward CG reduces VMCL

Vortex generators reduce wave drag

’
Load factor is increased by upward gusts

Mass balancing is for flutter

Polar curve:
• Maximum CL/CD ratio
• Maximum lift coefficient

Mcrit increases with decreasing mass

As thrust decreases, VMC decreases

Up-going aileron produces more drag than the down-going one

Aperiodic motion is for spiral dive, periodic motion is for dutch roll

The aerodynamic center is the point where the pitching moment coefficient does not vary
with angle of attack