EE1057- HIGH VOLTAGE

ENGINEERING
Syllabus

• Over Voltages and Insulation Co-ordination -Causes of over voltages: lightning and
switching over voltages; effects of over voltages on power system components, Surge diverters,
protection against over voltages; principles of insulation coordination, BIL.
• Generation of High Voltages and High Currents -Generation of high AC voltages: cascaded
transformers. Generation of high DC voltages: Rectifier and Voltage doubler circuits, Cockroft
Walton voltage multiplier circuit and its qualitative analysis. Generation of impulse and
switching surges; Marx circuit; generation of high impulse current. Tripping and control of
impulse generators.
• Measurement of High Voltages and High Currents -Measurement of AC, DC impulse and
switching surges using sphere gaps, peak voltmeters, Potential dividers, high speed CRO and
digital techniques, Opto Electronics method; Fiber optic method; Measurement of high currents.
• Electrical breakdown in Gaseous, Solid and Liquid Dielectrics -Gaseous breakdown in
uniform and non-uniform field, partial discharges and corona discharges, Vacuum breakdown,
conduction and breakdown in pure and commercial liquids, breakdown mechanisms in solid
and composite dielectrics.
Syllabus

• High Voltage Testing Practice - Indian Standards / IEC specification for testing, correction
factor; power frequency, impulse voltage and DC testing, high voltage testing of power
apparatus: Insulators, Bushings, Isolators, Circuit Breakers, Cables, Transformers and Surge
Diverters.

• Books
• Naidu.M.S and Kamaraju.V, “High Voltage Engineering”, Tata McGraw Hill, ISBN: 978-
9389811223.
• Kuffel.E and Zaengl.W.S, Kuffel.J, “High voltage Engineering fundamentals”, ELSEVIER,
ISBN: 978-8181477361.
Evaluation Policy

• Mark Distribution

• Continuous Assessment 1 – 20 Marks

• Continuous Assessment 2 – 20 Marks

• Assignment – 10 Marks (Quiz, Seminar, Lab experiments)

• Final Assessment – 50 Marks

• Absolute/Relative Grading

• Extra classes & Lab Demos

• Attendance ???
Overview of the Subject

Designing &
Generation of Testing power
over voltages system
components

Measurement
of over
voltages Over voltages
(Problem)

What
kind of
Failure of failure?
equipment
(Effect)
 Over Voltages and Insulation Co-ordination

• Over voltages may appear in any power system component (Generator, transformer,
transmission line, circuit breaker, load) due to several reasons

System Maximum Minimum Voltage Classification

Nominal Allowable Voltage Allowable Voltage • Low voltage (up to 250 V)
Voltage (kV) (kV) (kV) • Medium voltage (250-650 V)
230/400 V 253/440 V 207/360 V • High voltage (650 V – 33 kV)
• Extra high voltage (33 kV – 400 kV)
6.6 7.2 6.0 • Ultra high voltage (765 kV – 1200 kV)
11 12 10
33 36 30
Reasons for specifying voltage levels
66 72.5 60 • Design of equipment
132 145 120 • Selection of safety levels
• Design of protection system
220 245 200
400 420 380
 Transient Overvoltages System voltage
dependant

Not system
dependant External Internal
OV OV
Transient
overvoltages

Lightning Switching
overvoltages overvoltages

Lightning Switching
Phenomenon operations
Lightning Phenomenon

• Lightning is a myth for so many years often

associated with gods.
• Benjamin Franklin carried out experiments on
lightning in the mid of 18th century (1744-1752)
• In 1752, Franklin proposed an experiment
with conductive rods to attract lightning to
a leyden jar, an early form of capacitor.
• Such an experiment was carried out in May 1752
at Marly-la-Ville, in northern France, by Thomas-
François Dalibard.
• An attempt to replicate the experiment
killed Georg Wilhelm Richmann in Saint Leyden jar: Demo task (5)
Petersburg in August 1753
Lightning Phenomenon

• Most of the knowledge about lightning has been obtained over the last 50 to 70 years.
• The real incentive to study lightning came when electric transmission lines had to be
protected against lightning.
• The methods include measurements of (i) lightning currents, (ii) magnetic and
electromagnetic radiated fields, (iii) voltages, (iv) use of high-speed photography and
radar.
• Fundamentally, lightning is a manifestation of a very large electric discharge and
spark.
• Several theories have been advanced to explain accumulation of electricity in clouds
• Our interest: Lightning Discharge
Lightning Phenomenon

• In an active thunder cloud the larger particles usually

possess negative charge and the smaller carriers are
positive.
• Thus the base of a thunder cloud generally carries a
negative charge and the upper part is positive, with the
whole being electrically neutral.
• Several charge centres within a single cloud
• Typically the negative charge centre may be located
anywhere between 500 m and 10,000 m above ground.
Lightning Phenomenon

• The stroke is initiated in the region of the negative

charge centre where the local field intensity approaches
ionization field intensity (~30 kV/cm in atmospheric
air, or ~10 kV/cm in the presence of water droplets)

• Ionization of Air molecules

• During the first stage the leader discharge, known as
the ‘stepped leader’, moves rapidly downwards in steps
of 50m to 100 m, and pauses after each step for a few
tens of microseconds.

• Pilot streamer velocity ~1x105 m/s; Stepped leader velocity ~ 5x105 m/s
• Initial current is about some 100 A
Lightning Phenomenon

• Induction of charges in the earthed objects

• As the leader approaches ground, the electric field between

the leader and earth increases and causes point discharges
from earth objects such as tall buildings, trees, etc.

• At some point the charge concentration at the earthed object is

high enough to initiate an upwards positive streamer.
Lightning Phenomenon

• At some point the charge concentration at the earthed

object is high enough to initiate an upwards positive
streamer.

• At the instance when the two leaders meet, the ‘main’ or

‘return’ stroke starts from ground to cloud, travelling
much faster (~50x106 m/sec) along the previously
established ionized channel.

• Current in return stroke ~few kA to 250 kA

• Temperature within the channel 15,000˚C to 20,000˚C

Lightning Phenomenon

• The return stroke causes the destructive effects generally associated with lightning.
• The leader of the second and subsequent strokes is known as the ‘dart leader’ because
of its dart-like appearance.
• The dart leader follows the path of the first stepped leader with a velocity about 10
times faster than the stepped leader.
• The path is usually not branched and is brightly illuminated.
Lightning Phenomenon
Lightning Phenomenon

• Lightning strokes from cloud to ground account only for about 10 percent of lightning
discharges, the majority of discharges during thunderstorms take place between clouds.
• Discharges within clouds often provide general illumination known as ‘sheath
lightning’.
Lightning Voltage

• For a typical maximum stroke current of 10,000 A a transmission line of surge

impedance (say) Z = 400 Ω and assuming the strike takes place in the middle
of the line with half of the current flowing in each direction Z = 200 Ω the
lightning overvoltage becomes
V = 5000 x 400 = 2 MV
Energy in Lightning

• Let us assume a value of potential difference of 107 V for a breakdown between

a cloud and ground and a total charge of 20 coulombs

• The energy released is 20x107 Ws or about 55 kWh in one or more strokes that
make the discharge

• Small amounts of this energy are used in ionization of molecules, excitations,

radiation, etc.

• Most of the energy is consumed in the sudden expansion of the air channel.

• Some fraction of the total causes heating of the struck earthed objects.
Facts About Lightning
• Average number of lightning strikes worldwide every second - 100
• Average number of lightning strikes worldwide per day - 8.6 Million

India - 2019
Facts About Lightning
Facts About Lightning
Switching Overvoltages

• Up to 220 kV – Overvoltages due to lightning was the problem.

• In later years, 400 kV & above, overvoltages generated in the system reached the order
of lightning overvoltages.

• The making and breaking of electric circuits with switchgear may result in abnormal
overvoltages in power systems having large inductances and capacitances

• In circuit breaking operation, switching surges with a high rate of rise of voltage may
cause repeated restriking of the arc between the contacts of a circuit breaker, thereby
causing destruction of the circuit breaker contacts.
Switching Overvoltages - Origin

• De-energizing of transmission lines, cables, shunt capacitor, capacitor banks, banks,

etc.

• Disconnection of unloaded transformers, reactors, etc.

• Energization or reclosing of lines and reactive loads

• Sudden switching off of loads

• Short circuits and fault clearances

• Resonance phenomenon like ferro-resonance, arcing grounds, etc.

Switching Overvoltages in EHV and UHV systems

• The insulation has the lowest strength for switching surges with regard to long air
gaps.

• Switching overvoltages are of relatively higher magnitudes as compared to the

lightning overvoltages for UHV systems.

• Overvoltages are generated in EHV systems when there is a sudden release of internal
energy stored in electrostatic and electromagnetic fields
Switching Overvoltages in EHV and UHV systems

• The different situations under which overvoltages occur are

• Interruption of low inductive currents (current chopping) by high speed circuit

breakers. This occurs when the transformers or reactors are switched off.

• Interruption of small capacitive currents, such as switching off of unloaded lines,

etc.

• Ferro-resonance condition. This may occur when poles of a circuit breaker do not
close simultaneously.

• Energization of long EHV or UHV lines.

Switching Overvoltages in EHV and UHV systems

• Transient overvoltages in the above cases can be of the order of 2.0 to 3.3 p.u. and will
have magnitudes of the order of 1200 kV to 2000 kV on 750 kV systems.

• The duration of these overvoltages varies from 1 to 10 ms depending on the circuit

parameters.

• It is seen that these are of comparable magnitude or even higher than those that
occur due to lightning.

• Sometimes the overvoltages may last for several cycles.

Various over voltages due to switching

Overvoltages due to switching operations under different conditions

Maximum value of the system line-to-ground voltage = 1.0 p.u.
 Effects of Over Voltages on Power System Components

• Overvoltages produce excessive

electric field resulting sudden failure
of insulation
• Rotating Machines (Generators &
Motors) – Insulation failure
• Transformer – Inter turn insulation
failure
• Bushings & Insulators – arcing,
mechanical breakdown
• Circuit Breakers – Multiple operation
with restrikes
• Prolonged exposure to overvoltages –
aging & degradation of insulation
leading to complete failure
Protection Against Overvoltages

• Shielding the overhead lines by using ground wires above the phase wires

• Using ground rods and counter-poise wires

• Including protective devices like expulsion gaps, protector tubes on the lines, and surge
diverters at the line terminations and substations
Lightning Protection Using Shielded Wires or Ground Wires

• Ground wire is a conductor run parallel to the main conductor of the transmission line
supported on the same tower and earthed at every equally and regularly spaced towers.

• The ground wire shields the transmission line conductor from induced charges, from
clouds as well as from a lightning discharge.
Shielding wires….

Transmission tower with two shielding wires Transmission tower with one shielding wires
Shielding wires…

• With the ground wire present, both the ground wire and the line conductor get the
induced charge.

• But the ground wire is earthed at regular intervals, and, as such, the induced charge is
drained to the earth;

• Only the potential difference between the ground wire and the cloud and that between
the ground wire and the transmission line wire will be in the inverse ratio of their
respective capacitances.

• As the ground wire is nearer to the line wire, the induced charge on it will be much less
and hence the potential rise will be quite small.
Shielding wires….

• The effective protection or shielding given by the ground wire depends on the height
of the ground wire above the ground (h) and the protection or shielding angle θs
(usually 30°).
• The shielding angle θs ≈ 30° was considered adequate for tower heights of 30 m or
less.
• But for EHV lines, the tower heights may be up to 50 m, and the lightning strokes
sometimes occur directly to the line wires.
Protection using Ground rods & Counter-Poise wires

• When a line is shielded, the lightning strikes

either the tower or the ground wire.
• The path for drainage of the charge and lightning
current is
(a) through the tower frame to ground,
(b) through the ground line in opposite directions
from the point of striking.
• Thus the ground wire reduces the instantaneous
potential to which the tower top rises
considerably, as the current path is in three
directions.
Ground rods & Counter-Poise wires

• The instantaneous potential to which tower top can rise is

• If the surge impedance of the tower, which is the effective tower footing resistance, is
reduced, the surge voltage developed is also reduced considerably.

• This is accomplished by providing driven ground rods and counter-poise wires

connected to tower legs at the tower foundation.
Ground rods & Counter-Poise wires

• Ground rods are a number of rods about 15 mm diameter and 2.5 to 3 m long, driven
into the ground. In hard soils the rods may be much longer and can be driven to a depth
of, say, 50 m.

• They are usually made of galvanized iron or copper-bearing steel.

• The spacings of the rods, the number of rods, and the depth to which they are driven
depend on the desired tower footing resistance.

• The dynamic or effective resistance may be reduced to 10 Ω.

Ground rods & Counter-Poise wires

• Counter-poise wires are alternative to ground rods.

• Counter-poise wires are wires buried in the ground at a depth of 0.5 to 1.0 m, running
parallel to the transmission line conductors and connected to the tower legs.

• The surge impedance of the tower may be reduced to as low as 25 Ω.

• The depth does not materially affect the resistance of the counter-poise, and it is only
necessary to bury them to a depth enough to prevent theft.

• It is desirable to use a larger number of parallel wires than a single wire. But it is
difficult to lay counterpoise wires compared to ground or driven rods.
Protective Devices

• Expulsion Gaps

• Protector Tubes

• Rod Gaps

• Surge Arresters or Lightning Arresters

Surge Arresters or Surge Diverters or Lightning Arresters

• Requirements of a lightning arrester:

• Conduct electric current at a certain voltage

above the rated voltage;

• Hold the voltage with little change for the

duration of overvoltage;

• Substantially cease conduction at very nearly

the same voltage at which conduction started

• Location of installation ???

Earlier Protective Devices

• A very high impedance at

low currents but has low
impedance for high or
lightning currents

Expulsion gap Protector tube

Modern Surge Arresters

• The development of MOA (metal

oxide arresters) represented a
breakthrough in overvoltage
protection devices.

• It became possible to design

arresters without using gaps which
were indispensable in the
conventional lightning arresters,
which utilized non-linear resistors
made of silicon Carbide (SiC) and
spark gaps.
SiC Arrester ZnO Arrester
Modern Surge Arresters

• The volt–current characteristics for the two types of arresters can be

represented by the following equations:
ZnO Surge Arresters
• A change in current from 10-3 to 102 A/cm2, the voltage increase for ZnO is only 56%.
• With such a high degree of non-linearity, it is entirely feasible to use these elements without
series gaps in an arrester with a current of only tens of μA at operating voltage.

Normalized volt–ampere characteristic of zinc oxide and

silicon carbide valve elements
ZnO Surge Arresters
• The metal oxide varistors, which consist of compacted and sintered granules of zinc oxide
with a small amount of other carefully selected metal oxide additives (Bi2O3, MnO, Cr2O3,
Sb2O3) to improve the V–I non-linearity.

• The ZnO grains have a low resistivity, while the additives (oxides) which form the
boundaries between the grains provide high resistance. The two are strongly bonded when
sintered at high temperature.

(courtesy of Mitsubishi Elec. Co.)

 ZnO Surge Arresters

• It is noted that the voltage rating per unit valve

has been approximately doubled.
ZnO Surge Arresters
• The elements are manufactured in the form of discs of several sizes.
• The disc voltage rating has been increasing with the improvement in the manufacturing
technology and the microstructure composition.
• For higher voltage and current ratings the discs are arranged in series and in parallel.

Schematic structure of a three column series arrangement of

elements in advanced MOAs
ZnO Surge Arresters

Cross-section of a polymer-housed arrester (courtesy of

Bowthorpe EMP)
ZnO Surge Arresters
• The advantages of the polymeric-housed arresters over their porcelain housed equivalents
are several and include:

• No risk to personnel or adjacent equipment during fault current operation

• Simple light modular assembly – no need for lifting equipment.

• Simple installation

• High-strength construction eliminates accidental damage during transport

• The use of EPDM and/or silicon rubber reduces pollution flashover problems

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